Processes in Memory Three step process… Encoding: processing information into memory storage Storage: retaining memories over time Retrieval: getting information out of memory storage

Retrieval Tasks Retrieving information out of memory storage through two processes: 1. Recall 2. Recognition Recall Recognition must retrieve the information from memory fill-in-the blank, short response, or essay tests must identify the correct target from a set of choices multiple-choice tests

Serial-Position Effect Primacy Effect Remembering the beginning of a list the PRIMARY information Recency Effect Remembering the end of a list the most RECENT information Serial Positioning Effect Remembering the beginning and end of a list

Encoding Specificity Information present during encoding tends to be an effective retrieval cue Change in context between ENCODING and RETRIEVAL can cause memory failure Context-dependent Memory: We remember better when we recall information in the same context in which we learned it State-dependent Memory: We remember better when we recall information in the same state of mind (consciousness) in which we learned it Mood-congruent Memory: We remember better when we recall information in the same mood in which we learned it *Setting, consciousness, and emotions can serve as retrieval cues.

Retrieval Cues Stimuli that assists in memory retrieval Memories are held in storage by a web of associations Associations are like fish hooks that help retrieve memories Priming: The activation of associations in our memory to help us retrieve information Implicit Memory Involuntary Priming Effect: The increased sensitivity to particular stimuli/schema due to recent experience

Memory Construction When retrieving memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our memory make sense We can use schemas to make this happen When this happens, we are prone to misinformation effect Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into our memory of an event Information that happens after an event can alter our recollection of that event Occurs when people’s recollections of events are distorted by information given to them after the event occurred Recall of episodic memories become less accurate, because of post-event information

Misinformation and Constructive Memory Studied by Elizabeth Loftus Subjects were shown a video of a car accident Subjects were then questioned about the video Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Depiction of the actual accident.

Misinformation and Constructive Memory A week later, both groups were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

Misinformation and Constructive Memory Studied by Elizabeth Loftus Bugs Bunny at Disney Lost at the mall/drowned in a lake Research shows that if false memories are implanted, individuals will construct memories

Déjà vu Déjà vu is French for “already seen” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience

Forgetting

Forgetting An inability to retrieve information May be caused by poor encoding, storage, or retrieval Encoding failure Storage failure Retrieval failure Interference theory Decay theory Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon Amnesia Motivated forgetting Stress

Forgetting Curve Studied by Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) First to study forgetting Memorized 13 nonsense syllables Showed relationship between forgetting and time

Spacing Effect We learn and remember items more easily when repeatedly studied over a long span of time rather than repeatedly studied in a short span of time We retain information better when we rehearse over time DO NOT CRAM!!!

Interference Theory Other information gets in the way of what you want to remember (retrieve) Proactive interference: Old information blocks out new information Retroactive interference: New information blocks out old information Sleep prevents retroactive interference; therefore, it leads to better memory Calling your new girlfriend by old girlfriend’s name. Learning a new chapter and forgetting the previous chapter.

Decay Theory When we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this memory trace begins to fade and disappear (decay) Without rehearsal, memories decay rapidly If information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will be lost over time Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve Problem: sometimes we can recover “forgotten” memories research has demonstrated that sometimes memories which have not been rehearsed are remarkably stable in long-term memory

Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) Occurs when we are confident that we know something but cannot quite pull it out of memory Effortful retrieval Demonstrates that we do not store all information about a memory in one way “It’s on the tip of my tongue”

Types of Memory Prospective memory: Remembering what you have to do in the future “I have to study for my QUEST” Retrospective memory: Remembering what occurred in the past “I remember the 3 step process to memory”

Amnesia Memory loss Brain damage and illness can result in amnesia Retrograde amnesia: memory loss for a segment of the past, but not for new events Anterograde amnesia: memory loss that affects the retention of new information and events, but not for past events Finding Nemo (Dory) 50 First Dates (10-Second Tom)

Source Amnesia Attributing a memory to the wrong source Did I Experience, Hear, Read, or Imagine it? Also called misattribution or source monitoring error Studied by Marcia Johnson Source Monitoring: making attributions about the origins of memories Source Monitoring Error: when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source Reality Monitoring: process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one’s perception of actual events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and imaginations) Reality Monitoring Error: An inability to discriminate between internal and external sources

Motivated Forgetting Forgetting something that is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering is intolerable Banishes thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness that cause too much stress or anxiety Repression: unconsciously forcing unwanted information out of our awareness Suppression: consciously forcing unwanted information out of our awareness Both are defense mechanisms Proposed by Sigmund Freud Serves to protect