Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior. Two parts to the question: What are stereotypes (formation & research) How does it impact behavior? (attitude, prejudice, discrimination)

Attitude Definition Three Main elements Predisposition to respond in particular ways toward specific things Three Main elements Belief or opinion about something Feelings about that thing A tendency to act toward that thing in certain ways

Where do attitudes come from? Conditioning Cognitive evaluation Heuristic: Mental shortcut (no personal evidence) Evaluate the topics (evidence) Other Sources Culture Parents Peers

Cognitive Evaluation

Why do we have attitudes? evaluate our own beliefs and values to define ourselves. Develop a self-concept, personal identity interpret the objects and events we encounter. determine how to act in given situations.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy Belief, prediction, or expectation that operates to bring about its own fulfillment Examples Belief that people are friendly  you are friendly and open  people are friendly back (confirmation)

Cognitive Dissonance Definition: Uncomfortable clash between self-image, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes or perceptions and one’s behavior Cognitions  thoughts Dissonance  “clashing” RJ: Festinger & Carlsmith Compliance & cognitive dissonance

How does it impact behavior? Cognitive dissonance makes us uncomfortable Way to diminish negative feeling… Reject new information that contradicts beliefs Convincing others adds proof We convince ourselves Adjust attitudes

Stereotypes Definition: oversimplified images of people who belong to a particular social group Top three categories: Gender Age Race Stereotypes can be positive or negative Stereotypes are decreasing Turned into symbolic prejudice Prejudice that is expressed in a disguised fashion

FOUR Theories of Stereotypes Social Cognitive theories Social Identity Theory Systems-Justification Theory Social-Representations Theory

Social Cognitive Theories We live in a complex world that has too much information We need to simplify our social world Social categorization Categories  stereotypes Stereotypes are schemas Energy saving devices Automatically activated Stable and resistant to change Affect behavior

Research Theory: Social-Cognitive Theory (memory and stereotypes) Researcher: Cohen, 1981 Method: Experiment Hypothesis: We are more likely to remember information that is consistent with stereotypes Procedure: Video of husband and wife at dinner Librarian or waitress Results: Librarian: remember she wore glasses Waitress: she was drinking beer

SIT (Social Identity Theory) Category accentuation Emphasize in-group similarities and out-group differences Compare SIT with Social-cognition theory SIT enriches social perception SIT does not support that viewing a human as an individual is more accurate SIT believes stereotypes are flexible

Research Theory: SIT on Stereotypes (flexible) Researchers: Haslam and Turner, 1992 Method: Experiment Hypothesis: stereotypes are flexible Groups (Australians) Compare Soviet Union and US Compare Iraqis and US Results SU and US  US more aggressive Iraq and US  Iraq more aggressive

System Justification Theory (SJT) Jost and Banaji’s 1994 theory Stereotypes are used to justify social and power relations in society Rich and the poor Powerful and the powerless Negative Self-Stereotyping Phenomenon of disadvantaged groups tending to internalize negative stereotypes of themselves held by others Social-cognitive and SIT does not explain this

Social-Representations Theory (SRT) Moscovici, 1984 Social representations are the shared beliefs of the society Determined by social and cultural life Not ineffective thinking Reflect dominant preconceptions shared by the dominant group

Prejudice and Discrimination SJT and SRT emphasize group stereotypes and their negative consequences Prejudice Preconceived attitude toward a person or group Discrimination Unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership in a group NOT an individual basis

Prejudice & Discrimination Preconceived attitude toward a person or group Formed without sufficient evidence Not easily changed Can lead to discrimination Discrimination Unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership in a group NOT an individual basis

Stereotype Threat Effect Negative stereotypes impact performance Individuals are asked to carry out a task and are made aware of negative stereotypes about their groups’ ability to perform Research Spencer et al, 1999 Telling women that males usually do better (before the test) led to a decrease in performance scores Steel & Aronson, 1995 African Americans scored less on a difficult verbal task if they were asked to state their race before the test

Ethnocentrism Belief that one’s own ethnic group, nation, or religion is superior to others “us-them” thinking Universal Leads people to feel more attached to a group

Durban, South Africa 1989

How do prejudices develop? 1. Scapegoating Type of displaced aggression Blaming a person for the actions of others or conditions not of their making

2. Prejudiced Personality Authoritarian Personalities Rigidity, inhibition, prejudice, oversimplication Ethnocentric Placing one’s own group at the center Dogmatism Unwarranted positiveness or certainty in matters of belief or opinion

3. Intergroup conflict Social Stereotypes Us vs. Them Oversimplified images of people who belong to a particular social group Positive or Negative Us vs. Them

Stereotypes in Film Does film reflect the stereotypes in society OR does film create stereotypes

Experiments in Prejudice Jane Elliot Method: Unstructured experiment Brown eyed, blue eyed experiment How did she create prejudice? Status inequalities Differences in power, prestige, privileges

FOUR Theories of Stereotypes Social Cognitive theories Social Identity Theory Systems-Justification Theory Social-Representations Theory

Empirical Research Princenton Trilogy Katz and Braley Gilbert Karlins et al How do stereotypes impact behavior? Darley and Gross Steele and Aronson

Katz and Braley, 1933 AIM: whether traditional stereotypes had a cultural basis Participants: 100 male Princeton students Little contact with other ethnic groups Procedure: choose five habits that characterized different ethnic groups Results Positive traits applied to own group (ingroup bias) Majority agreement in negative traits Implications Stereotypes are learned through the media  cultural products

Gilbert, 1951 Method: survey AIM: replicate Katz and Braley, 1933 Procedure  same Results Less agreement about negative traits Except Japanese (bombing of Pearl Harbor) Unhappy about being asked to express stereotypes Less accepted to express negative stereotypes Still had ingroup bias Implications: stereotypes are cultural products

Karlins et al, 1969 AIM: replicate other studies Results Many objected to the task But, greater agreement on stereotypes Re-emergence of social stereotyping Criticisms for Princeton Trilogy Difference between knowledge of a stereotype and accepting it Research doesn’t consider this

Darely and Gross, 1983 Method: Experiment Hypothesis: by giving a few details, people apply stereotypes to an individual Procedure Videos: Playing in a poor and rich environment (same girl) Taking an intelligence test Asked to predict future success Results Rich girl would do well, poor girl would do less well Implications: use stereotypes to predict future success (treatment of people)

Steele and Aronson, 1995 Method: Experiment AIM: to see if belief in a stereotype impacts behavior Participants: African-Americans & European Americans (White). Procedure: verbal performance test Told it was… Verbal ability To see how problems were solved Results African Americans scored lower on the “verbal ability” test Implications If an individual believes in a stereotype, it impacts their behavior