New Combinations of Alleles: Variation for Natural Selection Recombinant chromosomes bring alleles together in new combinations in gametes Random fertilization increases even further the number of variant combinations that can be produced This abundance of genetic variation is the raw material upon which natural selection works

Mapping the Distance Between Genes Using Recombination Data: Scientific Inquiry Alfred Sturtevant, one of Morgan’s students, constructed a genetic map, an ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome Sturtevant predicted that the farther apart two genes are, the higher the probability that a crossover will occur between them and therefore the higher the recombination frequency

A linkage map is a genetic map of a chromosome based on recombination frequencies Distances between genes can be expressed as map units; one map unit, or centimorgan, represents a 1% recombination frequency Map units indicate relative distance and order, not precise locations of genes

Recombination frequencies Figure 15.11 Results Recombination frequencies 9% 9.5% Chromosome 17% Figure 15.11 Research method: constructing a linkage map b cn vg

Genes that are far apart on the same chromosome can have a recombination frequency near 50% Such genes are physically linked, but genetically unlinked, and behave as if found on different chromosomes

Sturtevant used recombination frequencies to make linkage maps of fruit fly genes He and his colleagues found that the genes clustered into four groups of linked genes (linkage groups) The linkage maps, combined with the fact that there are four chromosomes in Drosophila, provided additional evidence that genes are located on chromosomes

Long aristae (appendages on head) Red eyes Gray body Red eyes Figure 15.12 Mutant phenotypes Short aristae Maroon eyes Black body Cinnabar eyes Vestigial wings Down- curved wings Brown eyes 16.5 48.5 57.5 67.0 75.5 104.5 Figure 15.12 A partial genetic (linkage) map of a Drosophila chromosome Long aristae (appendages on head) Red eyes Gray body Red eyes Normal wings Normal wings Red eyes Wild-type phenotypes

Concept 15.4: Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders Large-scale chromosomal alterations in humans and other mammals often lead to spontaneous abortions (miscarriages) or cause a variety of developmental disorders Plants tolerate such genetic changes better than animals do

Abnormal Chromosome Number In nondisjunction, pairs of homologous chromosomes do not separate normally during meiosis As a result, one gamete receives two of the same type of chromosome, and another gamete receives no copy

Meiosis I Nondisjunction Figure 15.13-1 Figure 15.13-1 Meiotic nondisjunction (step 1)

Meiosis I Nondisjunction Meiosis II Non- disjunction Figure 15.13-2 Figure 15.13-2 Meiotic nondisjunction (step 2)

(a) Nondisjunction of homo- logous chromosomes in meiosis I Figure 15.13-3 Meiosis I Nondisjunction Meiosis II Non- disjunction Gametes Figure 15.13-3 Meiotic nondisjunction (step 3) n + 1 n + 1 n − 1 n − 1 n + 1 n − 1 n n Number of chromosomes (a) Nondisjunction of homo- logous chromosomes in meiosis I (b) Nondisjunction of sister chromatids in meiosis II

Video: Nondisjunction in Mitosis

Aneuploidy results from the fertilization of gametes in which nondisjunction occurred Offspring with this condition have an abnormal number of a particular chromosome

A monosomic zygote has only one copy of a particular chromosome A trisomic zygote has three copies of a particular chromosome

Polyploidy is common in plants, but not animals Polyploidy is a condition in which an organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes Triploidy (3n) is three sets of chromosomes Tetraploidy (4n) is four sets of chromosomes Polyploidy is common in plants, but not animals Polyploids are more normal in appearance than aneuploids

Alterations of Chromosome Structure Breakage of a chromosome can lead to four types of changes in chromosome structure Deletion removes a chromosomal segment Duplication repeats a segment Inversion reverses orientation of a segment within a chromosome Translocation moves a segment from one chromosome to another

(a) Deletion (c) Inversion (b) Duplication (d) Translocation Figure 15.14 (a) Deletion (c) Inversion A B C D E F G H A B C D E F G H A deletion removes a chromosomal segment. An inversion reverses a segment within a chromosome. A B C E F G H A D C B E F G H (b) Duplication (d) Translocation A B C D E F G H A B C D E F G H M N O P Q R A duplication repeats a segment. A translocation moves a segment from one chromosome to a nonhomologous chromosome. Figure 15.14 Alterations of chromosome structure A B C B C D E F G H M N O C D E F G H A B P Q R

A deletion removes a chromosomal segment. Figure 15.14a (a) Deletion A B C D E F G H A deletion removes a chromosomal segment. A B C E F G H (b) Duplication Figure 15.14a Alterations of chromosome structure (part 1: deletion and duplication) A B C D E F G H A duplication repeats a segment. A B C B C D E F G H

An inversion reverses a segment within a chromosome. Figure 15.14b (c) Inversion A B C D E F G H An inversion reverses a segment within a chromosome. A D C B E F G H (d) Translocation A B C D E F G H M N O P Q R Figure 15.14b Alterations of chromosome structure (part 2: inversion and translocation) A translocation moves a segment from one chromosome to a nonhomologous chromosome. M N O C D E F G H A B P Q R

Human Disorders Due to Chromosomal Alterations Alterations of chromosome number and structure are associated with some serious disorders Some types of aneuploidy appear to upset the genetic balance less than others, resulting in individuals surviving to birth and beyond These surviving individuals have a set of symptoms, or syndrome, characteristic of the type of aneuploidy

Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) Down syndrome is an aneuploid condition that results from three copies of chromosome 21 It affects about one out of every 700 children born in the United States The frequency of Down syndrome increases with the age of the mother, a correlation that has not been explained

Figure 15.15 Figure 15.15 Down syndrome

Figure 15.15a Figure 15.15a Down syndrome (part 1: karotype)

Figure 15.15b Figure 15.15b Down syndrome (part 2: photo)

Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes Nondisjunction of sex chromosomes produces a variety of aneuploid conditions XXX females are healthy, with no unusual physical features Klinefelter syndrome is the result of an extra chromosome in a male, producing XXY individuals Monosomy X, called Turner syndrome, produces X0 females, who are sterile; it is the only known viable monosomy in humans

Disorders Caused by Structurally Altered Chromosomes The syndrome cri du chat (“cry of the cat”), results from a specific deletion in chromosome 5 A child born with this syndrome is severely intellectually disabled and has a catlike cry; individuals usually die in infancy or early childhood Certain cancers, including chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), are caused by translocations of chromosomes

Translocated chromosome 22 (Philadelphia chromosome) Figure 15.16 Normal chromosome 9 Normal chromosome 22 Reciprocal translocation Figure 15.16 Translocation associated with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) Translocated chromosome 9 Translocated chromosome 22 (Philadelphia chromosome)

Concept 15.5: Some inheritance patterns are exceptions to standard Mendelian inheritance There are two normal exceptions to Mendelian genetics One exception involves genes located in the nucleus, and the other exception involves genes located outside the nucleus In both cases, the sex of the parent contributing an allele is a factor in the pattern of inheritance

Genomic Imprinting For a few mammalian traits, the phenotype depends on which parent passed along the alleles for those traits Such variation in phenotype is called genomic imprinting Genomic imprinting involves the silencing of certain genes depending on which parent passes them on

Environmental Effects of Environment. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fPCtvQIStSg

Normal Igf2 allele is expressed. Figure 15.17 Normal Igf2 allele is expressed. Paternal chromosome Maternal chromosome Normal-sized mouse (wild type) Normal Igf2 allele is not expressed. (a) Homozygote Mutant Igf2 allele inherited from mother Mutant Igf2 allele inherited from father Normal-sized mouse (wild type) Dwarf mouse (mutant) Normal Igf2 allele is expressed. Figure 15.17 Genomic imprinting of the mouse Igf2 gene Mutant Igf2 allele is expressed. Mutant Igf2 allele is not expressed. Normal Igf2 allele is not expressed. (b) Heterozygotes

It appears that imprinting is the result of the methylation (addition of —CH3) of cysteine nucleotides Genomic imprinting is thought to affect only a small fraction of mammalian genes Most imprinted genes are critical for embryonic development

Inheritance of Organelle Genes Extranuclear genes (or cytoplasmic genes) are found in organelles in the cytoplasm Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and other plant plastids carry small circular DNA molecules Extranuclear genes are inherited maternally because the zygote’s cytoplasm comes from the egg The first evidence of extranuclear genes came from studies on the inheritance of yellow or white patches on leaves of an otherwise green plant

Figure 15.18 Figure 15.18 A painted nettle coleus plant

Some defects in mitochondrial genes prevent cells from making enough ATP and result in diseases that affect the muscular and nervous systems For example, mitochondrial myopathy and Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy

Offspring from test- cross of AaBb (F1) × aabb Figure 15.UN03a Offspring from test- cross of AaBb (F1) × aabb Purple stem/short petals (A–B–) Green stem/short petals (aaB–) Purple stem/long petals (A–bb) Green stem/long petals (aabb) Expected ratio if the genes are unlinked 1 1 1 1 Expected number of offspring (of 900) Figure 15.UN03a Skills exercise: using the chi-square test (part 1) Observed number of offspring (of 900) 220 210 231 239

Testcross Offspring Expected (e) Observed (o) Deviation (o − e) Figure 15.UN03b Testcross Offspring Expected (e) Observed (o) Deviation (o − e) (o − e)2 (o − e)2/e (A−B−) 220 (aaB−) 210 (A−bb) 231 (aabb) 239 Figure 15.UN03b Skills exercise: using the chi-square test (part 2) 2 = Sum

Red = maternal; blue = paternal. Figure 15.UN04 Sperm Egg C c B b D d P generation gametes A E a e F f The alleles of unlinked genes are either on separate chromosomes (such as d and e) or so far apart on the same chromosome (c and f ) that they assort independently. This F1 cell has 2n = 6 chromo- somes and is heterozygous for all six genes shown (AaBbCcDdEeFf ). Red = maternal; blue = paternal. D e C B d Figure 15.UN04 Summary of key concepts: linkage A Genes on the same chromo- some whose alleles are so close together that they do not assort independently (such as a, b, and c) are said to be genetically linked. E F Each chromosome has hundreds or thousands of genes. Four (A, B, C, F ) are shown on this one. f a c b