Chapter 9 – Afro-Eurasian Connections, 600 – 1450 The Worlds of Islam Chapter 9 – Afro-Eurasian Connections, 600 – 1450

Islam in the United States By the year 2000, there were over 1,200 mosques in the United States. There are an estimated 8 million Muslims in the United States: -25% of which are African American. As of 2015, there are 1.8 billion Muslims in the world (most of which live in Asia-Pacific region).

The Birth of a New Religion Arabian Peninsula – home to polytheistic nomads: -Bedouins: independent tribes and clans of Arabs. Arabia: -important center for long-distance trade. -Kaaba – prominent religious shrine in Mecca. -Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism. -Allah was associated with Yahweh (Jewish God). Quraysh Tribe – controlled trade and taxed pilgrims.

Map of Arabia

Kaaba

The Messenger and the Message Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (570-632) was the prophet or messenger to the Arabs: -he was an orphan. -he was a prosperous merchant. -he took withdrawal into the desert and wrote down “God’s Words” which is the Qur'an/Koran. The angel Gabriel came to Muhammad in 610. Muslims believe: if you read the Quran in Arabic it conveys the very presence of the Divine.

The Message (Cont’d) An all-powerful Creator, which drew from Judeo-Christian traditions. Muhammad is “the seal” of the prophets from Abraham to Jesus. A return to the old and pure religion of Abraham. Primary obligation – submission to Allah. “Muslim” means one who submits. Need to create a new society of social justice, equality, and care for others. Umma – the just and moral society.

5 Pillars of Islam 1. There is no other god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of God. 2. Pray 5 times a day at prescribed times. 3. Give charity to the community. 4. Fast during the month of Ramadan. 5. Make a hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca.

The Message (Cont’d) Jihad means struggle (sixth pillar). Muhammad referred to it as the interior personal effort against greed and selfishness. Jihad of the Sword – the Qur'an authorizes armed struggle against unbelief and evil as a means of establishing Muslim rule and defending the Umma. The interpretation of “jihad of the sword” has varied widely over time. (Justification for terrorism?)

Mosque

The Transformation of Arabia In 622, Muhammad took the “hijra” (journey) to Medina. This begins the Islamic calendar. He created the “Umma” in Medina. Muhammad “definitively” broke from Judaism. Expansion: -military successes led to alliances. -large scale conversion. -Muhammad dies in 632, and most of Arabia is consolidated under Islam.

Fundamental Differences Between Islam and Christianity Islam did not grow up as a persecuted minority religion. No separation of church and state: -Muhammad was the political, religious, and military leader. Sharia (Religious Law) – same as the law of the land.

The Making of an Arab Empire The Arab state grew to include all or part of Egyptian, Roman/Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian, and Indian civilizations. Expansion: -defeated the Sassanid Empire by 644, and soon thereafter took half of Byzantium. -in the early 700s, conquered most of Spain and attacked southern France. -in 751, the Arabs crushed a Chinese army at the Battle of Talas River.

An Arab Empire (Cont’d) Economic motivators: captured profitable trade routes and wealthy agricultural regions. Communal needs: conquest helped hold the Umma together under a common purpose. Religious: bring righteous government to the conquered: -did not impose Islam. -in early period, Arabs thought Islam was their religion. -by mid-eighth century, they began seeking converts. -still protected “people of the Book” – Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians (dhimmis or second-class subjects). -non-Muslims paid special tax (the jizya) but could practice their own religion.

Spread of Islam

Conversion Initial conversion was “social,” not deeply religious. Benefits of Conversion: -earliest converts included slaves and prisoners of war. -converts did not have to pay the jizya. -Islam favored commerce. -good to be friends of “Allah” since the Arab empire was powerful. Around 80 percent of the population in Persia converted between 750 and 900, but they kept their Farsi language and cultural identity.

Divisions and Controversies Problem: Who should be Muhammad’s successor (caliph)? -Sunni – leaders should be elected by the community. -Shia – leaders should be blood relatives of Muhammad. Sunnis: religious authority comes from the community, especially from religious scholars (ulama). Shias: imams, their leaders, have religious authority. First four caliphs (632-661) – Rightly Guided Caliphs.

Umayyad and Abbasid Dynasties Umayyad Dynasty (661-750): -caliphs became hereditary rulers. -decadent rulers and unequal treatment of non-Arabs created unrest. Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258): -overthrew the Umayyad family. -treated non-Muslims much better. -caliphs became sultans of independent states. The last Abbasid caliph assassinated when Mongols sacked Baghdad in 1258. Islamic culture continued to flourish and expand.

Map of Umayyad Dynasty

Map of Abbasid Dynasty

Sufis Mystics seeking direct connection with the Divine. They renounced the material world. Critical of Sharia and the Qur’an. Members of the ulama thought the Sufis were heretics.

Women and Men in Early Islam Spiritually: - Qur’an states that men and women are equal. Socially: -women are subordinate to men. Women’s Rights: -own property, inherit wealth; consent to marriage. Early Islam – women had many more rights. Modern Islam – women cannot attend mosques, and must be veiled. Restrictions were put on women during the Abbasid Dynasty.

The Case of India Turkic-speaking invaders brought Islam to India. Muslim communities in India: -Buddhists and low caste Hindus found Islam attractive (equality). -converted to pay lower taxes. -at height, 20%-25% were Muslim. Muslim/Hindu Divide: -Monotheism versus Polytheism. -equality of all members versus caste system. -sexual modesty versus open eroticism.

The Case of India (Cont’d) Many Hindu’s willingly served Muslim-ruled India. Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak (1469–1539), this faith blended Islam and Hinduism in a monotheistic faith that recognized reincarnation and karma. Muslims remained as a distinctive minority.

Map of the Islamic World

Map of Muslim-ruled India

The Case of Anatolia (Turkey) The Turks invaded Anatolia about the same time as India: -major destruction at early stages in both places. -Sufi missionaries were important in both places. -in Anatolia, by 1500, 90 percent of the population was Muslim, and most spoke Turkish. The Ottoman Empire, by 1500, became the most powerful empire in the Islamic world.

Map of Ottoman Empire

The Case of West Africa Islam came peacefully with traders, not by conquest: -provided links to Muslim trading partners. -provided literate officials and religious legitimacy to the administrative state. West African cities became Islamic centers: -Timbuktu had over 150 lower-level Quranic schools. -libraries had tens of thousands of books. -Arabic became a language of religion, education, administration, and trade. Rulers made little effort to impose Islam or rule by Islamic law on their subjects in rural areas.

Map of Muslim West Africa

The Case of Spain Islam did not overwhelm Christianity. High degree of interaction and prosperity between Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Religious toleration broke down by late tenth century. Increased war with Christian states of northern Spain. After the Christian re-conquest in 1492, many Muslims were forced to emigrate or kept from public practice of their faith.

The World of Islam as a New Civilization Islamic civilization was held together by Islamic practices and beliefs: -beliefs/practices transmitted by the ulama (scholars), who served as judges, interpreters, etc. -starting in the eleventh century: formal colleges (madrassas) taught religion, law, and sometimes secular subjects. -a system of education with common texts, sharing of scholarship throughout the Islamic world.

Networks of Exchange Islamic world was an immense arena for exchange of goods, technology, and ideas: -great central location for trade. -Islamic teaching valued commerce. -urbanization spurred commerce. Muslim merchants were prominent on all the major Afro-Eurasian trade routes: -aided by banking, partnerships, business contracts, and credit instruments.

Networks of Exchange (Cont’d) Exchange of agricultural products and practices between regions: -Muslim conquest of northwestern India introduced rice, sugarcane, sorghum, hard wheat, cotton, and many fruits and vegetables to Middle East. Diffusion of technology: -spread Ancient Persian water-drilling techniques. -improvement of Chinese rockets. -adoption of papermaking techniques from China in the eighth century.

Exchange of Ideas Islam drew heavily, and openly, on Jewish and Christian precedents. Persia contributed to bureaucratic practice, court ritual, and poetry. Ancient Greek, the Hellenistic world, and Indian texts were translated into Arabic. Developments in mathematics, astronomy, optics, medicine, and pharmacology.

Muslim Borrowing Astrolabe borrowed from the Greeks The number zero was borrowed from India allowing for more complex math and astronomy.