12 Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in the Labor Market

Table 12.1 Shares of the Civilian Labor Force for Major Demographic Groups: 1988, 1998, 2008, 2018

Figure 12.1 Mean Earnings as a Percentage of White Male Earnings, Various Demographic Groups, Full-Time Workers over 24 Years Old, 2008

Table 12.2 Female Earnings as a Percentage of Male Earnings, by Age and Education, Full-Time Workers, 2008

Table 12.3 Female/Male Earnings Ratios and Percentages of Female Jobholders, Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers, by Selected High- and Low-Paying Occupations, 2009

Table 12.4 Employment Ratios, Labor-Force Participation Rates, and Unemployment Rates, by Race and Gender,a 1970–2009

Table 12.5 Male Earnings Differences, by Ancestry, 1990

Figure 12.2 Equilibrium Employment of Women or Minorities in Firms That Discriminate

Figure 12.3 Market Demand for Women or Minorities as a Function of Relative Wages

Figure 12.4 Effects on Relative Wages of an Increased Number of Nondiscriminatory Employers

Figure 12.5 Effects on Relative Wages of a Decline in the Discriminatory Preferences of Employers

Figure 12.6 The Screening Problem

Figure 12.7 Labor Market Crowding

Figure 12.8 Search-Related Monopsony and Wage Discrimination

Table 12.6 Change in the Racial Composition of a 1,600-Person Job Group with Nondiscriminatory Hiring from a Pool That Is 12 Percent Black (20 Percent Yearly Turnover Rate)