HG&D: Chapter 2 pages 45-56

In constrast to the grand theories, the two emerging theories draw from the findings of many disciplines. Sociocultural theory sees human development as the result of dynamic interaction between developing persons and their surrounding society and culture.

Major pioneer in sociocultural theory = Lev Vygotsky He was primarily interested in the development of cognitive competencies.

More on Vygotsky… He believed that these compentencies result from the interaction between novices and more mature members of society, acting as mentors, in a process that has been called an apprenticeship in thinking.

In Vygotsky’s view, the best way to accomplish the goals of apprenticeship is through guided participation, in which the tutor engages the learner in joint activities. Also…a mentor draws a child into the zone of proximal development, which is defined as the range of skills that a person can exercise and master with assistance but cannot perform independently.

Contributions and criticisms of sociocultural theory: -study development in specific cultural context -criticized due to not paying attention to other non-social theories

Newest of emergent theories… Epigenetic theory = emphasizes the interaction between genes and the environment. This idea contrasts sharply with the idea of preformism, according to which everything is set in advance by genes.

In using the word genetic, this theory emphasizes that we have powerful instincts and abilities that arise from our biological heritage. The prefix “epi” refers to the various environmental factors that affect the expression of genetic instructions. These include…

Stress factors = injury, temperature, crowding Facilitating factors = nourishing food, freedom to play

Some epigenetic factors are the result of the evolutionary process called selective adaptation, in which, over generations, genes for useful traits that promote survival of the species become more prevalent.

“Everything that seems to be genetic is actually epigenetic” This statement highlights the fact that all genetic instructions are affected by the environment.

(In Person) The study of animal behavior as it is related to the evolution and survival of a species is called ethology. Newborn animals and human infants are genetically programmed for social contact as a means of survival. Similarly, adults animals and humans are genetically programmed for infant caregiving.

Importance of culture in fostering development Importance of culture in fostering development? Sociocultural Ways in which thought processes affect actions? Cognitive Environmental influences? Behaviorism Impact of “hidden dramas” on development? Psychoanalytic Interaction of genes and environment? Epigenetic

Criticism… Too mechanistic Criticism… Too mechanistic? Behaviorism Undervaluing genetic differences? Cognitive Being too subjective? Psychoanalytic Neglecting society? Epigenetic Neglecting individuals? Sociocultural

Because no one theory can encompass all of human behavior, most developmentalists have an eclectic perspective, which capitalizes on the strengths of all the theories.

The debate over the relative influences of heredity and environment in shaping personal traits and characteristics is called the nature-nurture controversy. Traits inherited at the moment of conception give evidence of the influence of nature. Traits that emerge in response to learning and environmental influences give evidence of the effect of nurture.

Remember… Nature = inherited genetics Nurture = learning and environment

Developmentalists agree that, at every point, the interaction between nature and nurture is the crucial influence on any particular aspect of development.

Children who are especially impulsive, restless, and unable to attend to anything for more than a moment may be suffering from AD/HD. This disorder is more common in boys. What are some pieces of evidence that genetic inheritance is responsible for AD/HD?

-often have close male relatives with the same problem -are overactive in every context -calm down when they take stimulants -and…the fact that it is more common in a particular sex (boys)

All of the grand theories tended to explain homosexuality in terms of nurture. However, new research suggests that it is partly due to nature. Alcoholism? Depression?