memory Chapter 8

Studying memory Sequential Process Disk Keyboard Monitor (Storage) (Encoding) Disk (Storage) Monitor (Retrieval

Studying memory Memory Evidence of memory Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information Evidence of memory Recalling information Recognizing it Relearning it more easily on a later attempt

Studying Memory EBBINGHAUS’ RETENTION CURVE found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the less time he required to relearn it on day 2. Speed of relearning is one measure of memory retention The more you are exposed to information the more likely you are to retain it

Studying memory – memory models Psychologists use memory models to think and communicate about memory. Information-processing models Compares human memory to computer operations Involves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval Connectionism information-processing model Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing Views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

Studying memory - memory models Three processing stages in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model We first record to-be- remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory (info from senses) From there, we process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval.

Studying memory – encoding memories Working memory (short term memory) Involves newer understanding of short-term memory Focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long- term memory Is handled by a central executive (Baddeley, 2002)

Studying memory – Encoding memories Dual-track memory system Explicit memories (declarative memories) of conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processing Ex: George Washington was the first president of US Implicit memories (nondeclarative memories) that form through automatic processes and bypass conscious encoding track Ex: Riding a bike

Studying memory - Encoding memories Automatic processing and implicit memories Implicit memories include automatic skills and classically conditioned associations. Information is automatically processed about Space Time Frequency Ex: What you ate for lunch Effortful processing and explicit memories With experience and practice, explicit memories become automatic. Ex: learning concepts in psychology

Studying memory – encoding memory What is sensory memory? First stage in forming explicit memories Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system Iconic memory: Picture-image memory Echoic memory: Sound memory

Studying memory – encoding memory Encoding by meaning Encoding by images Encoding by organization

Studying memory – encoding memory Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

Studying memory – storing memory Short-term memory Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten Working memory Newer understanding of short-term memory that stresses conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual- spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Capacity varies by age and distractions at time of memory tasks Short-term memory George Miller (1956) Magical Number Seven: People can store about seven bits of information (give or take two) Baddeley and colleagues (1975) Without distraction, about seven digits or about six letters or five words Working memory Capacity varies by age and distractions at time of memory tasks

Studying memory – storing memory Past research Whole past is contained in memory—waiting to be relived Newer findings Flashback during surgery are new creations of stressed brain Information is not stored in single, specific spot. Perception, language, emotions and more require brain networks

Studying memory – storing memory Mnemonics Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in aiding memory. Method of Loci Link Method

Studying memory – storing memory Organizing Information for Encoding Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories. Chunking Hierarchy

Studying memory – storing memory Explicit-Memory System: Hippocampus And Frontal Lobes are dedicated to explicit memory formation Registers and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories before moving them to other brain regions for long-term storage. Neural storage of long-term memories is called memory consolidation

Studying memory – storing memory Implicit memory system: Cerebellum and basal ganglia Cerebellum plays important role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning Memories of physical skills are also implicit memories. Basal ganglia help form memories for these skills. Infantile amnesia Conscious memory of first three years is blank. Command of language and well-developed hippocampus needed

Frontal lobes and hippocampus: explicit memory formation Cerebellum and basal ganglia: implicit memory formation Amygdala: emotion-related memory formation

Studying memory Excitement or stress triggers hormone production and provokes amygdala to engage memory. Emotions often persist with or without conscious awareness. Emotional arousal causes an outpouring of stress hormones, which lead to activity in the brain’s memory-forming areas. Flashbulb memories occur via emotion-triggered hormonal changes and rehearsal.

Studying memory Synaptic changes Long-term potentiation (LTP) Increase in a synapse’s firing potential After LTP, brain will not erase memories Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

Studying memory - Retrieval cues Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store. Who are the people on the right?

Studying memory - Retrieval Memories held in storage by web of associations Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to memory suspended in this web. Best retrieval cues come from associations formed at the time a memory is encoded Priming Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Priming

Studying memory - Retrieval In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.) Name the capital of France. Brussels Rome London Paris In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.) The capital of France is ______.

Studying memory – retrieval Memory retrieval cues Priming Context-dependent memory State-dependent memory Serial position effect

Studying memory - Retrieval PRIMING—AWAKENING ASSOCIATIONS Priming allows up to make associations After seeing or hearing rabbit, we are later more likely to spell the spoken word as h-a-r-e. Associations unconsciously activate related associations. This process is called priming. (Adapted from Bower, 1986.)

Studying memory - Retrieval Context-dependent memory Involves improved recall of specific information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same Encoding specificity principle Suggests cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall

Studying memory - Retrieval State-dependent memory Involves tendency to recall events consistent with current good or bad mood (mood- congruent memory) Mood-congruent memory Involves tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood Serial position effect Involves tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

Studying memory - Retrieval Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

Studying memory – encoding, capacity, and durati0n Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory LTM Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic Capacity Unlimited 7±2 Chunks Very Large Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years

Studying memory - forgetting Humans have two distinct memory systems controlled by different parts of the brain. Forgetting has several causes Encoding failure Storage decay Retrieval failure Interference Motivated forgetting

We cannot remember what we have not encoded.

Studying memory - forgetting Encoding failure Age: Encoding lag is linked to age-related memory decline Attention: Failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failure Storage decay Course of forgetting is initially rapid, and then levels off with time Physical changes in the brain occur as memory forms (memory trace).

Studying memory - forgetting Reason for Failure Events and memories are not available because these were never acquired. Memories have been discarded due to stored memory decay. Insufficient information to access memories make these out of reach.

Studying memory - forgetting Interference Proactive: Occurs when older memory makes it more difficult to remember new information Retroactive: Occurs when new learning disrupts memory for older information If the Spanish (new info) were to interfere with the French (old info) it would be retroactive interference

Studying memory - forgetting Motivated forgetting Freud: Repressed memories protect self-concept and minimize anxiety. repression Today: Attempts to forget are more likely when information is neutral, not emotional.

Studying memory - forgetting WHEN DO WE FORGET? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it.

Studying memory - forgetting Misinformation and imagination effects Misinformation effect occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information. Imagination effect occurs when repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories.

Studying memory - forgetting Source amnesia (source misattribution) Involves faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagine déjà vu Is sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Suggests cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

Studying memory - forgetting FALSE MEMORIES False memories feel like real memories and can be persistent but are usually limited to the gist of the event. False memories are often a result of faulty eyewitness testimony. Children’s eyewitness recall Ceci and Bruck Researchers studied effect of suggestive interviewing techniques. 58 percent of preschoolers produced false stories about one or more unexperienced events. Children often accurately recall events and actors Neutral person Nonleading questions soon after event containing words children can understand

Studying memory - forgetting Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse? The debate between memory researchers and some well-meaning therapists focuses on whether most memories of early childhood abuse are repressed and can be recovered during therapy using “memory work” techniques using leading questions or hypnosis. What do you think?

Those committed to protecting abused children and those committed to protecting wrongly accused adults have agreed on the following: Sexual abuse happens. Injustice happens. Forgetting happens. Recovered memories are commonplace. Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable. Memories “recovered” under hypnosis are especially unreliable. Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting.

Studying memory – improving memory SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review) study technique used in this book incorporates several learning strategies. Rehearse repeatedly Make the material meaningful Activate retrieval cues Use mnemonic devices Minimize interference Sleep more Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you do not yet know