V L Meek, L Goedegebuure & P Quiddington University of Melbourne Overview of Higher Education in Asia-Pacific Facing Global and Local Challenges: the New Dynamics for Higher Education Asia-Pacific Sub-regional Preparatory Conference for the 2009 World Conference on Higher Education 24-26 September 2008 Macao SAR, PR China V L Meek, L Goedegebuure & P Quiddington University of Melbourne

Outline of Presentation Context Mapping higher education development trends across the region - Financial inputs and enrolments - Access and equity - Mobility and education of the workforce - Research output and Comparative S&T indicators • Summary and Challenges

Data Caveats Problem obtaining coherent data for the entire Asia Pacific region Not all national statistical collections are complete, though major improvements have been made in recent years Interpretation difficult, and must be done with some caution, due to different national data collection methods The vast extremes in the region make comparisons difficult - partly overcome by aggregating data into High, Medium and Lower Income Economy (HIE, MIE and LIE) groups, in line with World Bank classifications Sufficient data exists to develop some discernible patterns and trends in key areas of policy relevance SLIDE 4 Common problems obtaining coherent data for across the entire Asia Pacific region Not all national statistical collections are yet complete, though major improvements in recent years. Also, interpretation can be difficult, and must be done with some caution, because of different national data collection methods. Sufficient data to develop some discernible patterns and trends in key areas with policy relevance. The vast extremes in the region make comparisons difficult and this can be partly overcome by aggregating data into High, Medium and Lower Income Economic (HIE, MIE and LIE) groups, in line with World Bank classifications

Context Asia Pacific vast region - largest UNESCO region 3 billion people / 60% world population 2 countries more than one billion people Many small nation states with populations in the thousands Experiencing rapid and far reaching social and economic change Higher education a catalyst and product of change

Trends in population ages 18-23 years (thousands) 1.5 Billion under 15 years Source: NSF 2007 Source: NSF 2007

Total enrolments, tertiary programs, high income economies (1999-2005) Sources: UNESCO, Institute for Statistics and USAID, Economic Analysis and Data Services. (Additional source: Singapore Ministry of Education. Singapore 2002) Definition: Total Enrolment in Tertiary Programs (ISCED 5A + 5 B + 6), Male and Female Source: UNESCO

Total enrolment in tertiary programs, middle income countries Sources: UNESCO, Institute for Statistics and USAID, Economic Analysis and Data Services Source: UNESCO

Total enrolment in tertiary programs, lower income countries Sources: UNESCO, Institute for Statistics and USAID, Economic Analysis and Data Services Source: UNESCO

Financial Inputs and Enrolments

Share of expenditure for tertiary education as % of total education expenditure by country and grouping (1999-2006) High Income Middle Income Low Income Source: World Bank 2008 Definition: Share of expenditure for tertiary education as a percentage of total education expenditure. Source: WB 2008

Tertiary education expenditure - high income economies (1998-2005) Public expenditure, all levels, as a percentage of GDP Expenditure per tertiary student as a percentage of GDP per capita Source: World Bank Source: WB 2008

Tertiary education expenditure - middle income economies (1998-2005) Public education expenditure, all levels, as a percentage of GDP Expenditure per tertiary student as a percentage of GDP per capita Source: World Bank 2008 Source: WB 2008

Tertiary education expenditure - lower income economies (1998-2005) Public education expenditure all levels as a percentage of GDP Expenditure per tertiary student as a percentage of GDP per capita Source: World Bank 2008 Source: WB 2008

Participation High income economies (1999-2005) Source: UNESCO, Institute for Statistics and USAID, Economic Analysis and Data Services Series: Tertiary Gross Enrolment Ratio (Female and Male) Definition: Enrolment of tertiary students of all ages expressed as a percentage of the tertiary school-age population. The gross tertiary enrolment ratio describes the capacity of a school system in relation to the size of the official school-age population. For example, a ratio of 100 percent indicates that the number of students actually enrolled, including those outside the official age range, is equivalent to the size of the official tertiary school-age population. It does not mean that all people of official tertiary school-age are actually enrolled. Caution should be used when interpreting tertiary GER. In countries with regional universities or large numbers of foreign students this ratio may be higher than warranted. Likewise, it is possible for countries without universities or with large numbers of students studying abroad to have lower than expected ratios. Source: UNESCO

Participation Middle income economies (1999-2005) Sources/Definitions: see previous Source: UNESCO

Participation Low income economies 1999-2005 Sources Definitions: see previous Source: UNESCO

Percentage Private Enrolments 1999-2005 Notes: This chart comprises figures from a variety of sources, but mainly PROPHE (University of Albany) and UNESCO. Sources for the individual countries will be identified in the printed tables. They include: The Australian Department of Education, Science and Training , the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology ( Japan) , Ministry of Education and Human Resources (Korea), the Ministry of Education, Youth and (Cambodia) and Ministry of Higher Education (Malaysia) Source: UNESCO

Access and Equity Lack of reliable data Gender parity as a proxy measure of equity The data on access and equity is too patchy to develop a set of graphs or tables but there can be some discussion in the paper about the way in which various countries have begun to put policies in place to assist certain groups. The focus of these tend to vary enormously, which makes tracking equity difficult, but one universal measure is gender parity, and this can (with much qualification) provide a proxy measure for the successful implementation of policy.

Gender Parity Index Gross enrollment tertiary education 2006 General note: Gender parity provides a basic benchmark measure of equity that can apply to all countries, though it can also be highly misleading, and must be read within context. Source UNESCO and compiled by USAID Economic Analysis and Data Services (See notes next slide) Source: UNESCO

Gender Parity Index (GPI) Gross enrolment, tertiary education – Part A Country 1999 2001 2003 2005 Australia 1.22 1.23 1.25 Brunei 1.98 1.74 1.85 2.02 Cambodia 0.38 0.41 0.17 China 0.85 Fiji 1.2 1.20 Hong Kong 0.96 1.04 Indonesia 0.76 0.8 0.79 Japan 0.88 0.89 Korea, Rep of 0.57 0.59 0.61 0.63 Lao PDR 0.49 0.71 Macao, China 0.52 0.7 Malaysia 1.02 1.21 1.36 1.29 Marshall Is 1.30 Mongolia 1.88 1.69 1.62 Myanmar 1.61 1.77 Source: UNESCO 2008

Gender Parity Index (GPI) Gross enrolment, tertiary education – Part B Country 1999 2001 2003 2005 New Zealand 1.46 1.45 1.49 Palau 2.16 PNG 0.55 Philippines 1.26 1.28 1.23 Samoa 1.04 0.93 Thailand 1.16 1.13 1.14 Timor-Leste Tonga 1.29 1.66 1.70 Vanuatu 0.59 Vietnam 0.76 Bangladesh 0.51 0.54 0.5 0.53 Bhutan 0.58 India 0.69 0.68 0.71 Maldives 2.37 Nepal 0.27 0.34 Pakistan 0.81 0.88 Source: UNESCO 2008

Gender Parity Index (GPI) Gross enrolment, tertiary education ……………………………………………………………… Sources: UNESCO Institute of Statistics, compiled by the USAID Economic Analysis and Data Services Series: Tertiary Gross Enrolment Ratio (GPI) Calculation: Female tertiary net enrollment ratio divided by male tertiary net enrollment ratio, multiplied by 100. Source: UNESCO

Years spent in higher education by region 1999-2006 Source: UNESCO and UIS. This is an approximation based on ‘school life expectancy’. This is the best available showing the changing pattern of time spent in higher ed. There is very little trend data for the region as a whole on the change in age groups (ie lifelong learning indicator)

First university degrees per 100 24-year olds, by Asian country/economy Asia includes China, Japan, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan Source: NSF 2007 Source: NSF 2007

Mobility and Education of the Workforce Capability data is presented as fields of study which can then be matched against outputs in terms of skilled workers and published papers. This is nearly all assembled, though not fully charted. The mobility data is still being compiled.

Asia Pacific tertiary students studying abroad 2004 Source: OECD This is the start of the mobility section and this provides a broad overview. The following slides aim to show where the students go (by region and country) and what they study. Source: OECD 2005

International mobility 1998-2003 UNESCO DATA/ Add notes

Tertiary-educated workers in selected Asian countries/economies: 1990 and 2000 Source: NSF 2007

Increase in tertiary-educated workers, by region and country/economy: 1990-2000 (Asia includes China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand) Source: NSF 2007 Asia includes China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand Source: NSF 2007

Percentage of labour force with tertiary qualifications 1997-2005 Source: World Bank (This slide is not in sequence…will be placed later) Source: WB 2007

Percentage of graduates by field 1999 - 2005 High income economies Source: The categories used here by the World Bank (EdStat series) do not correspond well with other sets and some detailed notes will be needed Source: WB

Percentage of graduates by field Lower income economies (2003 or most recent)

Comparative S&T Indicators Research Output And Comparative S&T Indicators

GERD as a Percentage of GDP for Selected Countries Country GERD/GDP 1996/98 GERD/GDP 2002/04 China 0.60 1.44 India 0.55 1.11 Japan 2.78 3.15 Malaysia 0.22 0.69 New Zealand 1.1 1.16 Pakistan 0.16 0.24 Korea (Rep) 2.42 2.64 Sri Lanka 0.18 0.20 Thailand 0.12 0.26 Source: World Bank 2007

Gross expenditures on R&D by selected region and country/economy: 1990 - 2004 (Asia includes China, Japan, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan) Source: NSF 2007 Source: NSF 2007

Gross domestic expenditures on R&D by selected Asian country/economy Source: NSF Source: NSF 2007

Field/year of Doctorate Science and Engineering Doctorate Production, by selected country/economy and region: 1989-2003 or most recent year Field/year of Doctorate Asia China India Japan South Korea Taiwan 1989 10,035 1,024 4,209 3,561 984 257 1991 10,871 1,198 4,294 3,874 1,135 370 1993 12,587 1,895 4,320 4,438 1,421 513 1995 15,195 3,417 4,000 5,205 1,920 650 1997 19,277 5,328 4,764 6,157 2,189 839 1999 22,676 6,778 5,317 7,082 2,607 892 2000 23,584 7,304 5,395 7,089 2,865 931 2001 24,874 8,153 5,394 7,401 2,956 970 2002 N/A 9,523 5,527 7,461 3,225 1069 2003 12,238 6,318 7,581 3,192 1167 Source: NSF 2007 Source: NSF 2007

Science publications for all countries 1997/2002/2007 Source: ISI. This shows is the way in which the numbers of science (or soc. sci/ arts/ hum etc,. as will follow) publications per country are increasing regardless of the size of the economy. So, in relative terms China, Cambodia and Laos are expanding their science capacity quickly compared to Australia, Japan, the Philippines, and those other that have a more even spread over the years. However, this needs to be put into perspective, given the variation in size as shown in raw numbers chart to come later. Source: ISI

Social Science publications Source ISI This shows a not dissimilar picture, and this count includes the expansion in business, law and services. The Arts/ Humanities data will follow Source: ISI

Arts and Humanities Source ISI This is a rough: still to be completed.

Publications by broad category High income countries 1997 2007 Source ISI Source: ISI

Publications - low income countries 1997 2007 Source ISI Source: ISI

JiaoTong Rankings 03-08

Summary (1) Clear indicators of rapid growth and development across region Higher education a key component of growth and development Use of ICT to promote HE participation (7 of 10 world’s largest DE institutions located in AP) Distinctive features of higher education in the Asia Pacific emerging: mobility, heterogeneity

Summary (2) The increased mobility pushing countries & regional organisations towards common standards and mutual recognition of awards, e.g. *Work towards ASEAN Credit Transfer System; *Australian Diploma Supplement (graduation statement); *2006 Brisbane Communiqué (50 country signatories for common QA standards, cross recognition of professional qualifications, competency based standards for teachers, common recognition of technical skills)

Future Challenges (1) Continued massification Role and quality of private providers Competition for brains (students and staff), systems of innovation and knowledge economy/society Mobility and mutual recognition of awards Capacity and funding differentiation Overarching need for closer regional cooperation and for strategies that build capabilities that can better serve the region as a whole

Future Challenges (2) Rankings, excellence and ‘world class’ universities QA from process to standards and outcomes Sustainable development and local relevance Enhancement of the management and leadership of HE institutions - autonomy and accountability Public good component of HE and re-assessment of the role of the State

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