Study of the Day Researchers observed 105 adults lunching at an all-you-can-eat Italian buffet over the course of two weeks. They recorded the number of pizza slices and how many bowls of salad each diner ate. Gender of each diner's eating partner or partners was also noted. Before leaving the restaurant, the diners completed a short survey indicating their level of fullness after eating, and their feelings of hurriedness and comfort while eating. Men who dined with at least one woman ate 93% more pizza and 86% more salad than men who dined with only other men. The amount that women ate didn't differ when eating with other women or with men. When they ate with men, many women indicated feeling that they overate and were rushed through their meal.

Nonexperimental Research Correlational

Descriptive Methods Characterized by no manipulated IV. Major drawback- can not establish cause-and-effect Sometimes have more external validity. Best designs for variables you can’t mess with for ethical reasons.

Archival Data Preexisting Data e.g., customer service surveys

Pros & Cons Fewer ethical concerns Most of the work has been done. Easier IRB Most of the work has been done. Limited info about participants No control over info Limited access to info

Observational Studies

Case Studies In-depth study of one individual No manipulation or treatment. Collection of lots of information. e.g., H.M. and Genie

Pros & Cons Access to lots of info Rich source of new hypotheses/theories Limited generalizability Relies on subjective experiences (self-report)

Naturalistic Observation Observation of behavior in “real” settings. e.g., shopping behavior or subways

Funny example http://www.theonion.com/video/study-average-person-becomes-unhinged-psychotic-wh-33762

Pros & Cons Naturally occurring behavior More generalizable Limited control Observer effects (reactance) Observer bias

Participant Observation Special case of naturalistic obs. where the observer becomes a participant in order to gather more info. e.g., Study of gangs while being initiated.

Pros & Cons More detailed info (more personal too) Reduces reactance More costly (time, money, personal risk) Objectivity (“going native”) Ethically questionnable

Laboratory Observation Observation of behavior within an unnatural context (Lab) e.g., John Gottman’s studies of couples

Pros & Cons More control Limited generalizability Reactance Observer bias

Conducting Observational Research Systematic recording of events (use of a protocal) Time sampling vs. Situational sampling Qualitative vs. Quantitative Use of multiple raters (inter-rater reliability)

Survey Research

Questionnaires Pros Anonymity Cheap & Easy Mass collections Cons Low response & return rate Lack of control

Personal Interviews Pros High response rate More control over who & how Can observe body language. Cons More social desirable responding More costly More room for interviewer bias

Telephone Interview Pros Less costly than personal Easy to get random sample Easy data entry Cons Resistance due to telemarketing Must be very brief

Conducting Surveys Sampling Pilot testing/focus groups Random Stratified Convenience Pilot testing/focus groups Question development Order effects Response format

Validating Tests and Inventories

Achievement: General measure of knowledge and skills acquired. e.g., GPA

Aptitude Specific type of achievement e.g., Reading readiness tests

Personality Measure of motivational states or interpersonal capability. e.g., Conscientiousness