chapter 14 Knowledge as Functional Constraint in Motor Development

Knowledge Bases Performance related to size of knowledge base Less need to remember great deal of information More effective use of cognitive processes Less demand for conscious attention to some tasks Performance facilitated by practice of physical skills and by increased knowledge Sport- or dance-form specific

Types of Knowledge Declarative Procedural Strategic Factual information Topic-specific Procedural How-to information Strategic General rules and strategies Generalizable across activities Examples for your favorite activity?

Novice–Expert Differences As compared with novices, experts have more declarative and procedural knowledge, organize information in a methodical structure, make more inferences, analyze problems at a more advanced level, recognize patterns more quickly, preplan some responses to specific situations, organize knowledge relative to the goal of the game, and spend much time learning about the topic.

Development of Knowledge Base Declarative knowledge comes before procedural knowledge. Strategic knowledge develops last. French & Thomas (1987) Studied 8- to 12-year-old boys in basketball Knowledge led to better decisions French et al. (1996) Studied 7- to 10-year-olds in baseball Problem solving was related to knowledge rather than age (continued)

Development of Knowledge Base (continued) Nevett & French (1997) Researchers studied baseball shortstops. Use of procedural knowledge was evident by adolescence. McPherson (1999) Focused on 18- to 22-year-old female tennis players. Adult novices had fewer tactical concepts than did youth experts.

Knowledge Test Results

Gender Differences Gender differences in sport performance may result partially from differences in knowledge of a sport. Boys’ sport knowledge development is fostered. Do you know of any programs designed to increase girls’ sport knowledge?

Knowledge Bases in Older Adulthood Expert knowledge might offset some loss of physical ability. Learning about an activity can improve older adults’ performances. Langley & Knight (1996) study provides an example.

Memory How are learning and memory related to each other? Have researchers studied learning and memory together or separately? Why? What types of things do you remember best?

Memory in Adulthood Adults, too, remember more when they know more about a topic and are motivated. Fit older adults remember better than unfit older adults.

Speed of Cognitive Function Many activities require quick, accurate responses. Researchers generally work from an information processing perspective. Children and older adults take longer to process cognitive information than young adults do.

Speed of Cognitive Processing in Children Reaction time Time is measured between onset of stimulus and initiation of response. Speed increases from age 3 years through adolescence. Continuous tracking Process involves matching movement to a target. Time to response improves with advancing age. (continued)

Speed of Cognitive Processing in Children (continued) Selection of a response Selection improves with advancing age. It improves especially for incompatible stimulus–response arrangements. Central (rather than peripheral) functions account for children’s slower processing speeds.

Speed of Cognitive Processing in Adults Speed in single, discrete actions does not change much. Speed in simple, continuous, or repetitive actions does not change much. Speed in sequences of different types of movements slows noticeably. Speed in learning new tasks is reduced. Older adults are more susceptible to distraction.

Older Adult Slowing Central nervous system functions are more responsible. Choice reaction time slows relatively more than simple reaction time. Slowing is more pronounced on more complicated tasks. Developmentalists speculate that “neural noise” increases with age and contributes to slowing.

Active Lifestyles Minimize Slowing Active older adults are not much slower than young adults in reaction time. Meta-analysis established that fitness training improves cognitive performance, especially if it uses a challenging exercise program at a sufficient training level. Exercise may favorably affect both brain structure and function. (continued)

Active Lifestyles Minimize Slowing (continued) The older adult brain may have more plasticity than previously thought. What are the implications of findings regarding older adult fitness and cognitive performance? For individuals For health care programs For teachers and therapists

Knowledge as Functional Constraint: Summary Performance can be limited by limited knowledge. Performance can be enhanced by expert knowledge. Knowledge can be acquired at any age. Acquiring knowledge takes time and experience.

Assessment of Decision Making as an Indicator of Knowledge Written knowledge tests Interviews Observing, recording, and coding decisions made by athletes during play Talk-aloud recordings made between points or pitches