Chapter One Introduction: The Context for Assessment in Schools and Current Assessment Practices

Assessment Assessment refers to the gathering of information to help an individual make decisions. Monitoring student progress involves comparing a student’s performance to predetermined expectations of performance (charted as an aim line). For students not meeting expectations, interventions are designed, implemented, and evaluated. Assessment is not synonymous with testing. Unlike assessment, a test is a measurement device or technique used to quantify behavior.

Assessment Assessment refers to the gathering of information to help an individual make decisions. Monitoring student progress involves comparing a student’s performance to predetermined expectations of performance (charted as an aim line). For students not meeting expectations, interventions are designed, implemented, and evaluated. Assessment is not synonymous with testing. Unlike assessment, a test is a measurement device or technique used to quantify behavior.

Educational, historical events and philosophical movements frame the discipline of assessment. United States- 20th Century China- 2000 BC Individual Differences 1859-Origin of the Species, Charles Darwin Much of the major developments in testing occurred in this century, many in the United States. However, testing’s origins date back to China which had a relatively sophisticated civil service testing program more than 4000 years ago. Oral tests were administered every three years to determine evaluations and make promotional decisions. The Western world most likely learned about testing from the Chinese. The most basic concept underlying testing is the notion of individual differences. No two snowflakes are alike, similarly fingerprints, and of course individuals. But quantifying these differences was another matter. Darwin described the survival of the fittest. According to Darwin, higher levels of life arose because of individual differences, the result of more successful adaptation to one’s environment.

Hebart- Mathematical models. Weber- Psychological threshold. 1883-Sir Francis Galton attempted to begin to quantify these differences. 1890 US psychologist James Catell coined the term mental test, and extended the work of Galton. Hebart- Mathematical models. Weber- Psychological threshold. Psychological testing developed from these two lines of inquiry. He set out to show that some individuals possessed characteristics that made them more fit than others. His worked concentrated on sensory and motor functioning. Hebart used mathematical models to unlock the mysteries of human consciousness. Weber attempted to demonstrate the existence of a psychological threshold- the minimum stimulus needed to activate a sensory system.

Educational, historical events and philosophical movements frame the discipline of assessment. United States- 20th Century China- 2000 BC Individual Differences 1859-Origin of the Species, Charles Darwin Much of the major developments in testing occurred in this century, many in the United States. However, testing’s origins date back to China which had a relatively sophisticated civil service testing program more than 4000 years ago. Oral tests were administered every three years to determine evaluations and make promotional decisions. The Western world most likely learned about testing from the Chinese. The most basic concept underlying testing is the notion of individual differences. No two snowflakes are alike, similarly fingerprints, and of course individuals. But quantifying these differences was another matter. Darwin described the survival of the fittest. According to Darwin, higher levels of life arose because of individual differences, the result of more successful adaptation to one’s environment.

Hebart- Mathematical models. Weber- Psychological threshold. 1883-Sir Francis Galton attempted to begin to quantify these differences. 1890 US psychologist James Catell coined the term mental test, and extended the work of Galton. Hebart- Mathematical models. Weber- Psychological threshold. Psychological testing developed from these two lines of inquiry. He set out to show that some individuals possessed characteristics that made them more fit than others. His worked concentrated on sensory and motor functioning. Hebart used mathematical models to unlock the mysteries of human consciousness. Weber attempted to demonstrate the existence of a psychological threshold- the minimum stimulus needed to activate a sensory system.

Introduction Student diversity Expectations for schools Excellence & equity Role of assessment

Assessment Defined Assessment: a process of collecting data for the purpose of making decisions about students or schools. Uses for assessment information

The Importance of Assessment in School and Society Assessment affects everybody Reactions to positive assessment outcomes Reactions to negative assessment outcomes

Types of Assessment Decisions Made by Educators Discrepancies– Expectation v. Performance Decisions Made Using Assessment Information

Assessment Decisions, cont. Screening Decisions: Are There Unrecognized Problems? Progress Monitoring Decisions: Is the Student Making Adequate Progress? Monitoring Progress Toward Individual Goals Monitoring Progress Toward State Standards

Assessment Decisions, cont. Instructional Planning and Modification Decisions: What Can We Do to Enhance Competence and Build Capacity, and How Can We Do It? What to teach How to teach it What expectations are realistic

Assessment Decisions, cont. Resource Allocation Decisions: Are Additional Resources Necessary? Increased services for students Change and increased capacity for schools

Assessment Decisions, cont. Eligibility for Special Education Services Decisions: Is the Student Eligible for Special Education and Related Services? Students must have: Diagnosed disabilities Need for special education services to achieve educational outcomes

Assessment Decisions, cont. Program Evaluation: Are Instructional Programs Effective? Comparing approaches Accountability Decisions: Does What We Do Lead to Desired Outcomes? NCLB AYP

Important Things to Think About as You Read and Study This Textbook The Type of Decision Determines the Type of Information Needed Focus on Alterable Behaviors

Important Things, cont. Assess Instruction Before Assessing Learners Assessing Instruction Instructional Challenge Instructional Environment Classroom Management Learning Management Assessing Learners

Important Things, cont. Assessment Is Broader Than Testing Observations Recollections Tests Professional Judgments Assessments Have Consequences Concerns of the General Public Concerns of Certification Boards

Important Things, cont. Not All Assessments Are Equal Tests are samples of behavior Reliability & validity Assessment Practices Are Dynamic

Important Considerations as You Prepare to Learn About Assessment in Special and Inclusive Education in Today’s School Why Learn About Assessment? Good News: Significant Improvements in Assessment Have Happened and Continue to Happen.

Legal and Ethical Considerations in Assessment Chapter Two Legal and Ethical Considerations in Assessment

Introduction Our current practice of assessment has been significantly affected by: Federal laws IEPs Performance reports Court rulings Professional standards & ethics ©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Laws Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 Employment of people with disabilities Education of people with disabilities Used to get services for students with conditions not listed in the disabilities education legislation ©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Laws, cont. Major Assessment Provisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act The Individualized Education Program Provisions A specification of individual goals, procedures for delivering the instructional program, & procedures for evaluating the effectiveness of the program Multidisciplinary child study team Parental approval for the IEP ©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Laws, cont. Assessment Provisions of IDEA cont. Protection in Evaluation Procedures Provisions Fair, equitable, & nondiscriminatory testing Least Restrictive Appropriate Environment That setting on the “cascade of alternatives” most nearly like the regular class The least restrictive setting in which the student can be successful Due Process Provisions Rights of parents & guardians ©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Cascade of Alternative Placements (Often called “Deno’s Cascade”) ©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Note on Least Restrictive Environment The right to placement in the regular class or in that setting most like the regular class The child is to be placed in that environment in which s/he can be successful. Dual concept of placement in that setting closest to regular class and in which the student can be successful ©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Laws, cont. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 States set educational standards & objectives Annual testing for grade 3-8 Parents have option to transfer students out of failing schools K-3 reading interventions Evidence-based instruction Accountable for all students ©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Laws, cont. 2004 Reauthorization of IDEA Implications for assessment of students with disabilities New alternative assessment approaches may be used to decide whether students are learning disabled Significant discrepancy between ability & achievement Failure to respond to evidence-based interventions ©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Ethical Considerations Beneficence Always practice in the best interests of the students (do no harm). Recognition of the Boundaries of Professional Competence Respect for the Dignity of Persons Privacy and Confidentiality of Information Fairness and Nondiscrimination in Assessment ©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Ethical Considerations, cont. Adherence to Professional Standards on Assessment Test Security ©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.