Managing Individual Stress Chapter 9 Managing Individual Stress McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2014 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Objectives Summarize what is meant by “stress” Describe the major components of the organizational stress model Compare individual, group, and organizational work stressors Discuss individual and organizational outcomes of stress Identify variables that moderate the stress process Give examples of different organizational and individual approaches to stress prevention and management

What is Stress? Stress that originates elsewhere interacts with and affects workplace behavior and performance Stress for those in industrialized societies often originates in organizations An adaptive response moderated by individual differences A consequence of any action, event, or situation that places special demands on a person Stress A potentially harmful or threatening external event or situation Stressor

Stress Triggers Work overload or a nagging boss Computer problems or time deadlines Downsizing and mergers Poorly designed jobs Marital disharmony and financial crises Accelerating rates of change World events

For something to cause stress, it must be seen as a source of… What is Stress? For something to cause stress, it must be seen as a source of… Stress Threat Challenge Harm

Key factors determine if an experience is likely to cause stress What is Stress? Key factors determine if an experience is likely to cause stress Importance Uncertainty Duration Stress duration Acute stress lasts for seconds, hours, or days Chronic stress may last for months or years

Exhibit 9.1 Three Factors That Make an Event Stressful

EXHIBIT 9.2 A Model of Stressors, Stress and Outcomes

Moderators Stress is influenced by individual differences (moderators) Age and gender Social support mechanism Personality Heredity Even in the presence of moderators, intervention may be needed

Responsibility for people Individual Stressors Role ambiguity Responsibility for people Pace of change Harassment Role overload Role Conflict

Work underload also creates problems Work Overload Qualitative Occurs when people lack the ability needed to complete their jobs or when performance standards are set too high Quantitative Results from having too many things to do or insufficient time to complete a job Can cause biochemical changes in the body Work underload also creates problems

EXHIBIT 9.3 The Underload-Overload Continuum

The Hardiness Factor People with “hardiness” possess three characteristics They believe they can control the events they encounter They are extremely committed to the activities in their lives They treat change as a challenge

Recognizing Stress in Employees New pattern of tardiness or absences Gregarious employee becomes withdrawn Normally neat, accurate work becomes messy, incomplete, or sloppy Good decision maker starts making bad decisions or seems unable to make them Easygoing employee who gets along well with others becomes irritable and discourteous Normally well-groomed employee neglects his or her appearance

Significant Stressors Participation Intra- and intergroup relationships Organizational politics Organizational culture Downsizing Inadequate career development opportunities Lack of performance feedback Nonwork stressors

Taking college classes Balancing family/work Non-work Stressors Elder and child care Taking college classes Balancing family/work Economy Volunteer work Health problems

Perceptual process of evaluating a situation Cognitive Appraisal Perceptual process of evaluating a situation Explains why one person’s interpretation of stressors is different from another’s Primary appraisal… categorizing a stressor as positive, negative, or meaningless Secondary appraisal… determination of whether something can be done to reduce the stress

Coping with Stress Problem-Focused Emotion-Focused

Stress Outcomes Blue-collar workers report the highest effects of stress White-collar workers report the lowest stress Skilled blue-collar workers report fewer stressors than their unskilled counterparts All workers report that job performance is affected

Individual Outcomes of Stress Stress can produce various psychological consequences, including… Anxiety Frustration Apathy Lowered self-esteem Aggression Depression

Depression: Key Facts Depression Has Serious Consequences Depression costs $51 billion a year in medical bills, lost productivity, absenteeism The World Health Organization predicts that by 2030, more people in the world will be affected by depression than any other health problem. Depression is hard to detect, especially within the current health care system

Stress Outcomes Behavioral Accident proneness Impulsive behavior Alcohol & drug abuse, Explosive temper Cognitive Poor concentration Inability to make good or any decisions Mental blocks Decreased attention span Physiological Increased heart rate Elevated blood pressure, sweating Hot & cold flashes High blood glucose levels, elevated stomach acid production

A psychological process resulting from work stress that results in… Burnout A psychological process resulting from work stress that results in… Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Feelings of decreased accomplishment

EXHIBIT 9.3 Burnout Indicators

Burnout Involvement in, identification with, or commitment to one’s job Prerequisite for burnout Women are more likely to burn out than are men Young workers are more susceptible than older ones Unmarried workers are more likely to burn out than married ones Individual variables make burnout more likely

Factors that Contribute to Burnout High levels of work overload Dead-end jobs Excessive red tape/paperwork Poor feedback & communication Role conflict & ambiguity Difficult interpersonal relationships Reward systems not tied to performance

These myths must be dispelled before staff burnout can be reduced Myths About Burnout These myths must be dispelled before staff burnout can be reduced When a client says jump, the only answer is “How high?” Reining in employees’ workloads will turn them into slackers If employees are working themselves into the ground, its their own fault

Organizational Consequences of Stress Stress costs organizations $300 billion annually Poor decision making Decreased creativity Mental and physical health problems Lost work time and turnover Increased health insurance premiums Job dissatisfaction and sabotage Customer dissatisfaction

Type A Behavior Pattern Stress Moderators Personality Type A Behavior Pattern Social support A condition, behavior, or characteristic that intensifies or weakens the relationship between stressors, stress, and consequences

Big 5 Model of Personality Agreeableness Conscientiousness Openness to experience Extroversion Emotional stability Big 5 Personality Traits A stable set of characteristics, temperament, and tendencies that shape behavior

Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP) Chronic struggle to get as much done as possible in the shortest time period Speaks explosively, rushes others to finish Preoccupied with deadlines Always in a struggle with people, things, events Aggressive, ambitious, competitive, forceful Impatient, hates to wait Work-oriented Anger and hostility toward others

Type B Behavior Pattern The person with Type B behavior pattern Generally feels no pressing conflict with either time or persons Is mainly free of TABP characteristics

Comfort, assistance, or information Social Support Comfort, assistance, or information Received through formal or informal contacts with individuals or groups Linked to health, illness, and stress Forms of social support Emotional Appraisal Informational

Social support is an effective stress moderator Sources of support People, whether at or outside the workplace Social support is an effective stress moderator Provides a degree of predictability, purpose, and hope in upsetting and threatening situations

Stress Prevention and Management Absenteeism problems Workplace drug abuse Decline in performance Hostile and belligerent employees Reduced quality of production Any sign that goals are not being met An astute manager never ignores…

EXHIBIT 9.5 Organizational Stress Management Program Targets

Stress Prevention and Management To create a supportive work environment… Set an example by being a source of support for others, particularly subordinates Encourage open communication and maximum exchange of information Provide timely performance feedback, in an encouraging, non-threatening manner Have senior members of the work group mentor the less experienced Maintain or increase work group cohesion

Stress Prevention and Management Focuses on controlling or eliminating stressors Stress Management Helps people reduce or cope with the stress that is being experienced

Stress Management Program Targets Corrective actions… Train workers to manage/cope with stress Redesign work to minimize stressors Change management style to support/coaching Create more flexible work hours Pay more attention to work/life balance Better communication and team-building practices Better feedback on performance and expectations Improve the fit between the person and job

Maximizing Person-Environment (P-E) Fit A P-E fit approach to managing stress focuses on fit Person-Organization Fit Person-Vocation Fit Person-Job Fit Person-Group Fit

Maximizing Person-Environment (P-E) Fit Realistic job previews Testing/selection programs Socialization Closely linking personal predispositions to aspects of the job

Stress Prevention & Management Programs Employee assistance programs (EAPs) Designed to deal with stress-related problems Behavioral and emotional difficulties Substance abuse Family and marital discord Other personal problems

Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) Diagnosis Screening Treatment Prevention

Focus on overall physical and mental health Wellness Programs Focus on overall physical and mental health Identify, help prevent, or correct specific health problems, hazards, or habits Hypertension Smoking Physical fitness Nutrition Stress management

Exhibit 9.6 Percent of “100 Best Companies to Work for” Offering Specific Wellness programs

Success Factors for EAP/Wellness Programs Top-management support Unions support and participate in the program Long-term commitment to the effort Extensive and continuing employee involvement Clearly stated objectives Employees must participate freely, without either pressure or stigma Confidentiality must be strictly adhered to Employees must trust that participation will not affect their organizational standing

Individual Approaches Individual approaches to stress prevention and management… Cognitive techniques Relaxation training Meditation Biofeedback

Cognitive Techniques Changing labels or cognitions so that people appraise situations differently. This reappraisal typically centers on removing cognitive distortions such as Magnifying Overgeneralizing Personalization

Relaxation Techniques Relaxation techniques include... Breathing exercises Muscle relaxation Autogenic training Mental relaxation strategies including imagery and visualization

Meditation The basic procedure used in TM is simple, but the effects claimed for it are extensive. One simply sits comfortably with closed eyes and engages in the repetition of a special sound (a mantra) for about 20 minutes twice a day. Studies indicate that TM practices are associated with reduced heart rate, lowered oxygen consumption, and decreased blood pressure

Biofeedback training has been useful in… Reducing anxiety Lowering stomach acidity Controlling tension and migraine headaches Reducing negative physiological manifestations of stress

In Review, Did We… Summarize what is meant by “stress” Describe the major components of the organizational stress model Compare individual, group, and organizational work stressors Discuss individual and organizational outcomes of stress Identify variables that moderate the stress process Give examples of different organizational and individual approaches to stress prevention and management