Module 20: Learning by Observation Learning by observing and imitating others = Learning by modeling Learning without direct experiences Don’t we sometimes learn without direct experience?

Physiological basis of observational Learning Observational learning is a function of mirror neurons (2000, 2002) Neurons in the frontal lobe that are activated when we perform certain actions OR when we observe someone else performing them Mirror neurons also help develop empathy (theory of mind) Seeing a loved one’s physical or emotional pain Watch video: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3204/01.html Recently neuroscientists have discovered mirror neurons that provide a neural bases for observational learning: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy A mirror neuron is a premotor[1] neuron which fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another (especially conspecific) animal. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of another animal, as though the observer were itself acting. These neurons have been directly observed in primates, and are believed to exist in humans and in some birds. In humans, brain activity consistent with mirror neurons has been found in the premotor cortex and the inferior parietal cortex. Some scientists consider mirror neurons one of the most important findings of neuroscience in the last decade. Among them is V.S. Ramachandran[2], who believes they might be very important in imitation and language acquisition. However, despite the popularity of this field, to date no plausible neural or computational models have been put forward to describe how mirror neuron activity supports cognitive functions such as imitation.[3] Furthermore, it is generally accepted that no single neurons can be responsible for the phenomenon. Rather, a whole network of neurons (neuronal assembly) is activated when an action is observed. Neuronal basis for perceiving other’s emotions, and sensations, intentions Development of empathy Language development

Albert Bandura’s work with observational learning (1925- ) First set of experiments with children on social (observational) learning (Movie) Observing aggression lowers inhibition Observing aggression leads to an imitation of aggression We observe behavior AND its consequences (rewards and punishments) We are especially likely to imitate the behavior of “relevant” models Those who are similar Those who are successful or admirable Good Models: Attractive High Status Similar to selves Modeling can help organisms learn: Which events are important Which stimuli signal events Which responses produce positive or negative consequences

Types of observational learning Positive observational learning: learning of prosocial behaviors Learning of morality and conscientious behavior Negative observational learning: learning of antisocial behaviors Intergenerational transmission of violence Media and gender roles Media and aggression  There is a CAUSAL relation between exposure to media violence and being violent or accepting violence.

Media and violence Very high exposure to media models 9 years of your life before age 75 6 of 10 TV programs feature violence 74% of violence goes unpunished 58% does not show the victim’s pain 50% documented “justification” 50% had an attractive perpetrator By the age of 12, children watch 8,000 murders and 100,000 acts of assorted violence We become desensitized to seeing violence We have less sympathy for the victims of violence (rape and abuse) We have less moral reaction against the perpetrators

Imitation in infants Newborn imitation For example, infants will imitate live models, as well as actions that they have seen on television Infants who watch a televised model on one day will reproduce the model’s behavior 24 hours later (Meltzoff, 1988) What might be an educational implication?

Classical Conditioning Review Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Associative learning Learning that CS signals pending US Learning that a behavior and its consequences go together What kind of behavior? Respondent behavior: occurs automatically Operant behavior: behavior operates on the environment and produces consequences Consequ-ences of conditioning Behavior is repeated IF CS is given, in anticipation of the US Frequency of a behavior is changed in anticipation of its consequence What is the process of acquisition? A CS is associated with an US to produce CR. Behavior is shaped by reinforcers (primary & secondary) and punishers: reinforcement strengthens the behavior, punishment weakens it. What may happen after acquisition? Extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination.

Learning: summary Learning by Observation Operant Conditioning Skinner’s Experiments Extending Skinner’s Understanding Skinner’s Legacy Contrasting Classical & Operant Conditioning How Do We Learn? Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiments Extending Pavlov’s Understanding Pavlov’s Legacy Learning by Observation Bandura’s Experiments Applications of Observational Learning