Using Critical Thinking

Source: Paul & Elder, Foundation for Critical Thinking

Uses of the Critical Thinking Framework Critically assess the written, oral, video, etc., works of others. Use as a heuristic (guide, format, checklist, etc.) for developing your own written, oral, video, etc., work. For developing answers to questions or solutions to problems.

Using Critical Thinking in Your Own Analysis CCT Elements of Thought Comments 1. Purpose The “Big Picture” (cannot research) 2. Question or Problem Be specific and focused, have one question or problem that can be researched 3. Information Information Literacy (Week 4)—provides: context & background, data (evidence, facts, etc.), existing studies on your question or problem 4. Essential Concepts Points of View Assumptions Definitions, Theories, Models, Hypotheses, Development of Alternatives 5. Interpretation & Inference Analytic methods to test hypotheses; reach findings & conclusions 6. Implications & Consequences Results if findings implemented (intended and unintended)

Interpretation & Inference Logical Argumentation (combines logic, reasoning, information) Existing Models or Methods (Case Studies, Analogy, Analysis of Competing Hypotheses, Rational Choice, Utility Theory, Game Theory, etc.—there are hundreds) Basic Statistics (descriptive statistics, contingency tables, means tables, ordinary least squares regression, logistic regression) Advanced Statistics and Mathematical Methods

Pros-Cons-Fixes (PCF): The Benjamin Franklin Technique For each Alternative Hypothesis: List all Pros List all Cons Review & Consolidate Cons, merge and eliminate Neutralize as Many Cons (create Fixes) as possible Compare Pros & unalterable Cons for all Alternatives Pick Best Solution

A Basic Matrix Analysis Alternative or Hypothesis 1 Alternative or Hypothesis 2 Alternative or Hypothesis 3 Evaluation Factor 1 + - Evaluation Factor 2 Evaluation Factor 3 Evaluation Factor 4 _ Total Scores 1 inconsistency (best solution) 2 inconsistencies 3 inconsistencies

Basics of Logical Argumentation: Combining Logic, Reasoning and Information Claimed premises (evidence, data, information) and connecting reasons (because) Premises/Reasons (therefore) What is claimed to follow from the Premises/Reasons Conclusions/Inferences/Contentions/Thesis

Argument Mapping

Argument Mapping: Example Question: Should voting be compulsory?

Logic Fallacies (Bad Reasoning) Red Herring—introduction of an irrelevant point into an argument—someone may think this supports his/her side, but it really does not. Ad Hominem Attack—attacking an opponent’s character, or his/her motives for believing something, instead of providing a good counter-argument. Appeal to the People—claiming a viewpoint is correct because many other people (or famous people) agree with it. Straw Man—changing or exaggerating an opponent’s position or argument to make it easier to refute. Circular Reasoning, Equivocation, Loaded Question, Part-to-Whole, Either-Or, etc.—there are many more fallacies.

Conclusions (in longer essays & papers) Do not just summarize the essay or paper. Revisit the original research question or problem and place your findings in its context. Explain the implications and consequences of adopting your findings Identify issues that need to be addressed if this question or problem is to be further researched.

Intellectual Standards to Assess Thinking Clarity – Could you give an example? Accuracy – How could we verify that? Precision – Could you give more details? Relevance – How does that relate to the problem?

Intellectual Standards to Assess Thinking Depth – What are some of the complexities of this problem? Breadth – Do we need to consider another point of view? Logic – Does this all make sense together? Significance – Which of these facts/problems is the most important? Fairness – Do I have a vested interest in the issue?

Professional Writing Procedures Do not use first person (I, me, etc.). Use third person (we, us, etc.) in all professional writing. Minimize the use of quotes—use paraphrasing instead. At most use 1 or 2 short quotes (those < 40 words and placed in text) per page and 1 longer quote (those > 40 words and indented on the page) every 2-3 pages. Do not use rhetorical or hypothetical questions for emphases. Do not use phrases such as “I think…” “I believe…” “In my opinion…”etc., superiors do not want opinions, just what you can support with logic, reasoning and information. Do not use Wikipedia (it has no validity checks). Do not use encyclopedias, dictionaries or other standard reference books—use scholarly literature instead.

Critical Thinking Analysis and Writing Proficiency Comes With Practice

Good Luck in Your Critical Thinking Reference List (to learn more):   American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.    Bluedorn, N. and H. Bluedorn. (2003). The Fallacy Detective, Thirty-Six Lessons on How to Recognize Bad Reasoning (2nd ed.). Muscatine, IA: Christian Logic. Nosich, G. (2012). Learning to Think Things Through, A guide to Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson. Paul, R. and L. Elder. (2006). Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.