Restoration and Reaction

Great Britain Conservative Tories controlled British politics after 1815 They were intent on clearing away radicalism in the kingdom Parliament remained unrepresentative

Landed interests passed the Corn Laws Democratic movements agitated for reform A peaceful gathering in 1819 in Manchester was met with armed forces (Peterloo massacre)

Germany Metternich dominated politics through the German Confederation Idealistic youth student nationalists formed the Burschenshaft to celebrate German culture and discuss political issues Metternich convinced the Confederation to issue the Carlsbad Decree

Russia Army officers influenced by revolutionary ideology had formed the Decembrist Society to push for a constitutional government In 1825, the Decembrist Revolt agitated for the accession of Constantine to the throne, instead of his brother Nicholas

Nicholas crushed the revolt and ruled Russia with “Autocracy, Orthodoxy and Nationality” He relied on a new secret police, religious uniformity and the imposition of Russian language and culture

The “Isms” The period between 1815-1850 can be termed the age of ideologies Such ideologies or “isms” influenced how people viewed events and motivated them into action

Conservatism Conservatism should not be equated with complete rejection to change Conservatives believed that human nature was driven primarily by passion

Edmund Burke became a leading advocate for change through adaption Humans are capable of reason, but often employ it as an excuse for self interest actions Customs and traditions act as checks on the passions and should not be discarded lightly

Joseph de Maistre demonstrated how once the revolution in France broke from its tradition of church, monarchy, and nobility, it descended into violent chaos Conservative philosophy supported the restoration governments of the post-1815 order

Liberalism Liberalism acted as a powerful philosophy of change throughout the 19th century Liberals embraces laissez-faire principles of capitalism and strong protection of private property Liberals favored the social contract theory of limited government

Many Liberals came from the middle class and supported a more representative government Wanted to see an expansion of suffrage, but only for property owners

Jeremy Bentham Articulated for utilitarianism Good is defined as providing pleasure and evil as causing pain The purpose of government was to promote “the greatest good for the greatest number”

Socialism, Republicanism, and Feminism Self-proclaimed radicals and republicans embraced the “principles of 93” Many were drawn from intellectual circles or from the working class Favored equality and universal male suffrage

Republicanism shaded off into socialism Socialists wished to replace the capitalist system with a system of social and economic planning One of the first socialists, Robert Owen, built a model factory in New Lanark, Scotland to better provide for his workers needs

Most early socialists were French, reflecting the legacy of the revolution Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier embraced an ethos of cooperation and shared property Louis Blanc created the idea of “national workshops” for the working class

Many advocates of women’s rights drew from the Enlightenment tradition of individual rights and social equity Flora Tristan argued that the oppression of women sprung from the unequal ownership of property Numerous female writers demonstrated that women could exercise independent creative voices By 1850, many feminists had established a clear agenda for the movement

Nationalism Proved to be the most combustible ideology of the 19th century Initially acted as a cultural revival and celebration of traditions

Germany Long divided, experienced a wave of cultural nationalism Johann Gottfried Herder replaced the political-judicial conception of state with an organic folk-nation best represented by the term Volksgeist, or spirit of the people

Germans celebrated their music and folklore Cultural Nationalism eventually took on political overtones German philosopher Hegel glorified the national state as the march of destiny through history History consisted of a class of opposing ideas, called the dialectic

Many nationalists formed secret societies to promote their agenda of unity In Italy, Guiseppe Mazzini first joined the secretive Carbonari before forming Young Italy in 1831

Eastern Europe also experienced a revival of national tradition Intellectuals representing the diverse group of Slavic speakers looked to common linguistic and cultural traditions and advocated pan-Slavism Pan-Slavism inspired uprisings in the 1815-1850 period

Romanticism A literary, musical, and artistic movement dominating European culture in the first half of the 19th century Reacted to the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason and science

Romanticism stressed: Emotions Intuition Nature Nationalism Religion The unique individual