Development of the Self-Concept

HOW THE SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS The combination of physical and psychological attributes unique to each individual Self-Differentiation in Infancy 2 months – a limited sense of personal agency they are responsible for some events

HOW THE SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS Self-Recognition in Infancy Self-concept – who or what we are 5 months – recognize the self as familiar Self-recognition Rouge test 18–24 months, most realized the person in the mirror was them 2–3 years, limited to present self 4–5 years, extended self

HOW THE SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS Contributors to Self-Recognition Cognitive development is necessary Social experience Secure attachment Parents provide descriptive information Cultural differences Younger self-recognition if autonomy was stressed

Figure 11.1 Average scores on a test of self-knowledge as a function of age and attachment quality.

Table 11.1 Proportion of Mothers Adopting Different Parenting Styles with 3-Month-Olds and the Proportion of Those Children Achieving Self-Recognition When They Were 18- to 20-Months Old. Source: Adapted From Keller et al., 2004.

HOW THE SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS Social and Emotional Consequences of Self-Recognition Necessary for self-conscious emotions Toddlers become more socially skilled May begin to cooperate Begin to categorize themselves on dimensions of how people differ

HOW THE SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS Who Am I? Responses of Preschool Children 3 ½–5 – use physical and behavioral dimensions Can use psychological Sociability Intelligence Athleticism

HOW THE SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS Conceptions of Self in Middle Childhood and Adolescence Becomes more abstract with age Recognize they are not the same in all situations May use false self-behaviors – acting out of character to improve image, etc. Becomes more integrated with age

HOW THE SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept Self descriptors American students – more likely to be personal or individualistic Japanese students – more likely to be social or relational

Figure 11.2 Average percentages of personal/individualistic and social/relational attributes listed as core dimensions of the self-concept by American and Japanese students who responded to a “Who Am I?” questionnaire.

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Self-Esteem: evaluation of one’s worth based the self-concept Origins and Development of Self-Esteem 4–5 years, an early, meaningful, stable sense of self-esteem Securely attached children more likely to have high sense of self-esteem Reasonably accurate with how others (teachers) evaluate their social competencies

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Components of Self-Esteem Academics, social acceptance, appearance, athleticism, and behavior 4–7 years – positive on all 8 years – based on others’ evaluation Adolescence – relational self-worth, importance of relationships Females – supportive friendships Males – influencing friends

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Changes in Self-Esteem Some children experience a decline into middle and high school Multiple stressors contribute to declines Overall stability is lowest in childhood and early adolescence Relatively stable in late adolescence and early adulthood Gradual increase in young adulthood

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Importance of Self-Esteem High self-esteem Less depression, conduct disorders If a result of prosocial or adaptive life experiences Low self-esteem Worse mental and physical health Worse economic prospects

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Social Contributors to Self-Esteem Parenting Styles Warm, supporting, nurturing / democratic leads to high self-esteem Peer Influences Social comparison, especially in individualistic societies Social support from peers – high esteem

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Culture, Ethnicity, and Self-Esteem Self-Esteem appears lower in collectivist societies But being lower may make individuals feel good, as it is what society wants Ethnic minorities express lower levels of esteem in elementary school, but equal or higher by adolescence Support and pride in ethnic group

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Development of Achievement Motivation and Academic Self-Concepts Achievement motivation Willingness to strive to succeed at challenging tasks To meet standards of accomplishment Mastery motive Inborn motivation to master the environment

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Early Origins of Achievement Motivation Phase 1: Joy in Mastery Prior to 2 years, pleased with successes, but do not seek recognition, failures don’t matter Phase 2: Approval-Seeking Near age 2, seek approval for successes, expect disapproval for failure

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Phase 3: Use of Standards (3+ years old) Adopted objective standards Pride after success, shame after failure Less dependent on others’ evaluations

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Achievement Motivation During Middle Childhood and Adolescence Home Influences on Mastery Motivation and Achievement Quality of attachment Secure attachment results in being more self-assured, and comfortable about taking risks and seeking challenges

Figure 11.3 Scenes like this one were used by David McClelland and his associates to measure achievement motivation.

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF The home environment 66% of children from intellectually stimulating homes doing well in school Led to intrinsic orientation to achievement 70% of children from nonstimulating homes were doing poorly

Table 11.2 Relationship Between Quality of Home Environment at 12 Months of Age and Children’s Grade-School Academic Achievement 5 to 9 Years Later. Source: Adapted from “The Relationship Between Twelve-Months Home Stimulation and School Achievement,” by W. J. van Doorninick, B. M. Caldwell, C., Wright, and W. K. Frankenberg, 1981, Child Development, 52, 1080-1083. Copyright © 1981 by The Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Child-rearing and achievement Independence training Achievement training Praising successes, not being overly critical of occasional failures aids achievement motivation Authoritative parenting – style described above (warm, firm, democratic)

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Peer Group Influences African American and Hispanic peer groups in low-income areas may discourage academic achievement Parents value education, individuals may associate with peers sharing those values

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Cultural Influences Chinese children much more critical of personal failures in learning versus American children

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Beyond Achievement Motivation: Development of Achievement Attributions Types of Achievement Attributions Stable versus unstable Internal versus external

Table 11.3 Weiner’s Classification of the Causes of Achievement Outcomes (and Explanations of How You Might Explain a Terrible Test Grade).

Figure 11.4 An overview of Weiner’s attribution theory of achievement.

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Age Differences in Achievement-Related Attributions Prior to age 7, unrealistically optimistic Incremental view of ability: ability is changeable and increases with effort 8–12 – distinguish ability from effort Entity view of ability: ability is a stable trait

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF Dweck’s Learned-Helplessness Theory Mastery orientation: attribute successes to ability, externalize failures or attribute them to unstable causes Persist after failure, increase effort Learned helplessness orientation: attribute failures to stable and internal factor Stops trying Tends to persist over time

Figure 11.5 Characteristics of the mastery-oriented and learned-helplessness achievement orientations.

SELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELF How does learned helplessness develop? Praise hard work if child succeeds, and criticize ability when failure occurs Goal is process-oriented praise, not person oriented praise Want to criticize lack of effort when failure occurs Can be changed relatively easily through attribution retraining

VIDEO: Self-Fulfilling Prophecies in the Classroom

WHO AM I TO BE?: FORGING AN IDENTITY Identity – firm and coherent sense of who one is, where one is heading, and where one fits into society Identity Status: Identity diffusion: not yet thought about or resolved identity issues Foreclosure: committed to identity but without a crisis of decision

WHO AM I TO BE?: FORGING AN IDENTITY Moratorium: identity crisis, actively asking questions and seeking answers Identity achievement: resolved identity issues by making personal commitments to goals, beliefs, and values

WHO AM I TO BE?: FORGING AN IDENTITY Developmental Trends in Identity Formation 12–18 – majority are identity diffused or foreclosed 21 and older – moratorium status or achieved a stable identity Women place more importance on sexuality, gender roles, family/career Likely to be at different statuses in different domains

Figure 11.7 Percentages of participants in each of Marcia’s four identity statuses as a function of age. Note that resolution of the identity crisis occurs much later than Erickson assumed: Only 4 percent of the 15-year-olds and 20 percent of the 18-year-olds had achieved a stable identity. From “Cross-Sectional Age Changes in Ego Identity Status During Adolescence,” by P. W. Meilman, 1979, Developmental Psychology, 15, p 230-231. Copyright © 1979 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted by permission.

WHO AM I TO BE?: FORGING AN IDENTITY How Painful Is Identity Formation? Moratorium – not a stressful status Identity achievement – healthy, leads to higher self-esteem, fewer personal concerns than other statuses Long-term failure to establish an identity is negative Small minority of adolescents

WHO AM I TO BE?: FORGING AN IDENTITY Influences on Identity Formation Cognitive Influences Formal-operational thought helps imagine and contemplate future identities Parenting Influences Being neglected/rejected = diffused Too controlling = foreclosed Affection, mutual respect = moratorium, achievement

WHO AM I TO BE?: FORGING AN IDENTITY Scholastic Influences College pushes people toward career setting College students behind working peers in terms of political or religious identities Social-Cultural Influences Desire to choose a personal identity after exploration may only apply in industrialized societies today

WHO AM I TO BE?: FORGING AN IDENTITY Identity Formation Among Minority Youth Deciding to establish an ethnic identity Once achieved Higher self-esteem, relationships with parents and peers of other ethnicities Parents need to Teach traditions and foster pride Prepare children to handle prejudice Be warm and supportive confidants

VIDEO: Multi-Racial Development

THE OTHER SIDE OF SOCIAL COGNITION: KNOWING ABOUT OTHERS Age Trends in Person Perception Younger than 7–8, characterize people in same concrete, observable terms used to describe the self 4–6 are capable of thinking about traits in meaningful ways Less likely to think they are stable Traits are used to describe recent behavior

THE OTHER SIDE OF SOCIAL COGNITION: KNOWING ABOUT OTHERS 6–8: used many behavioral comparisons 8–11: rapid increase in psychological constructs (traits) 12–16: use of psychological comparisons 14–16: recognize dispositional similarities, and situational factors both affect behavior

Figure 11.8 Percentages of descriptive statements classified as behavioral comparisons, psychological (traitlike) constructs, and psychological comparisons for children between ages 6 and 11. From “The Development of Person Perception in Childhood and Adolescence: From Behavioral Comparison to Psychological Constructs to Psychological Comparisons,” by C. Barenboim, 1981, Child Development, 52, 129-144. Copyright ©1981 by The Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

THE OTHER SIDE OF SOCIAL COGNITION: KNOWING ABOUT OTHERS Theories of Social-Cognitive Development Cognitive Theories of Social Cognition Cognitive-development theory Growth of social-cognitive abilities is related to cognitive development Selman’s role-taking theory Role-taking skills allow one to assume a different perspective Developmental sequence

Table 11. 4 Selman’s Stages of Social Perspective Taking Table 11.4 Selman’s Stages of Social Perspective Taking. Source: Adapted from “Social Cognitive Understanding: A Guide to Educational and Clinical Experience,” by R. L. Selman, 1976, in T. Likona (Ed.), Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research, and Social Issues. Copyright © 1976 by Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Adapted by permission of the editor.

THE OTHER SIDE OF SOCIAL COGNITION: KNOWING ABOUT OTHERS Social Influences on Social-Cognitive Development Social experience as a contributor to role-taking Equal-status contacts with friends and peers are important Parents and siblings also important