Lecture 8: Rural Development Policy and Gender Issues 3rd Oct 2012

Rural development policy perspectives 1950s-1990s 1950s-1960s: Agricultural modernization 1960s: Agriculture for growth: source of inputs for industry and exports: Green Revolution technology Late 60s: Small farm efficiency models – equity + growth 1970s: Integrated Rural Development Programmes: State intervention targeting basic needs 1980s: Market Liberalisation and Structural Adjustment 1990s : Poverty reduction – participation + empowerment 2000s: Sustainable livelihoods

Livelihoods vs. Political Economy What’s Next Livelihoods vs. Political Economy

Small farm focus Potential for growth Rational economic agents Capable of exploiting new technologies Intensive & efficient use of land & labour Spend income locally leading to rural growth linkages (not necessarily urban industrialisation as in the dual economy model, but non-farm diversification)

Structural Adjustment Trimming public sector institutions including extension services Cutting subsidies on inputs, credit etc Removing trade restrictions and protection – GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) Benefits developed countries as gain quotas Rise in global food prices – 2007-8 – enhanced poverty (reduction in food intakes, sale of land to agribusiness, increase in malnutrition and child labour…)

Poverty Reduction and Growth Private sector the main engine of development (liberalisation, withdrawal of state services…) Government provides strategic policy and investment support (for infrastructure, service delivery and marketing) Decentralised and participatory approaches encouraged – social learning

2005 - Pro-Poor Rural Development World Bank action plan on how to achieve this by increasing access to: Human capital – skills – ‘education’/knowledge Land – market-based land reforms Credit Facilitating labour mobility across sectors and localities Targeted income support through conditional transfers Efficient policies for ‘laggard’ regions – infrastructure provision Re-evaluation of the potential of ‘laggard regions’ (forests and clean air etc.)

3. Rural women provide the majority of agricultural labour Women ‘left out’ of ‘development’ opportunities: confined to subsistence sector, ignored by rural delivery agents (Boserup, 1970). Why is women’s work invisible? 1. Locational visibility: home or work place, rural or urban, agriculture or industry 2. Economic visibility: Market versus subsistence 3. Ideological visibility: meanings attached to and ideological valuations of different types of work – “reproductive economy underpins the productive economy” (Elson, 1999).

Key concepts Triple roles of women include: Productive – production of goods and services for consumption/market; Reproductive: care and maintenance of hh; Community management: volunteer activities

Globalisation & The Changing Structure of The Labour Force Globalisation and relocation of industries in developing countries: Feminisation of employment in EPZs ( Export Processing Zones) Industries outside EPZs - horticulture, Subcontracted home-based work Increased number of female migrants Working conditions not improving - Unequal hiring standards; Unequal opportunities for training; Segregation; Unequal pay; Unequal career prospects; Greater likelihood of losing job; Unequal sharing of family responsibilities

Gendered Constraints to Diversification Due to structure of labour markets, all activities are not equally accessible to men and women: mobility, organisation of the household, and asymmetrical distribution of resources These differ across locales, what Kabeer calls “regional patriarchies”. (Naila Kabeer, 2001)

Livelihoods are not only about incomes and earning a living Livelihoods Definition ‘A livelihood comprises people, their capabilities and their means of living, including food, income and assets’ (Chambers and Conway, 1992). Food Security Old thinking: Problems of hunger, malnutrition and famine are problems of production New thinking: Problems of hunger, malnutrition and famine are problems of rights, claims and entitlements.

How Gender Analysis Helps Gender analysis is a type of socio-economic analysis that uncovers how gender relations affect a development problem Asks questions about differences in roles, activities and resources. Focus on disaggregation – amongst men/women or between men and women. Identifies both constraints and opportunities – not just women as victims.