Harbrace Chapter 35 “Writing Arguments”

Argument /Persuasion Argument is linked with logical reasoning Persuasion is winning or conquering using emotional appeal

In argumentation, Audience is integral to purpose. If you are unable to convince, invite the audience to consider and understand your position If the audience is not firmly committed to a position, you may be able to convince… If the audience is in agreement, invite them to respond specifically

Tips for Assessing a Topic and an Arguable Statement Invention: Reasons to support Groups who might agree/disagree? Knowledge and Research?

Position Argument takes a position or makes a claim Position is called the claim or proposition

Claims(how much can be supported) Absolute---assert that something is true or false Moderate---make less sweeping assumptions

Claims (how much they encompass) Substantiation Claims---assert that something exists; can be supported by evidence Evaluation Claims---assert that something has a specific quality (good or bad; successful or unsuccessful, etc.) Policy Claims---writers call for a change in policy or law

Development of the Well Developed Argument Introduce several reasons for your claim Stronger and more complex Cannot be dismissed as quickly

Supporting the Claim Evidence must be valid Evidence from credible sources which includes facts, statistics, examples, testimony

Refutation Most common strategy for addressing opposing points of view Why is it important? Why could it be confusing?

Concessions Open admission of agreeing with your opponents on one or more specific points Advantages--- Disadvantages---

Decisions How do you decide which points to refute or to concede? Exercise

Rhetoric/Rhetorical Situation Rhetoric: Using language effectively to persuade, inform, educate, or entertain Rhetorical Situation: The circumstances in which you communicate.

Illustrated Rhetorical …

Rhetoric • Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.” At its best, rhetoric is a thoughtful, reflective activity leading to effective communication.

Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle

Three Rhetorical Appeals The combination of the three strategies or appeals helps speakers shape effective arguments

Logos Appeal to logic or reason; logical Effective use of reason and judicious use of evidence Used in supporting claims, drawing conclusions, and avoiding logical fallacies Very rarely effective in persuasion “Reason is, and ought only to be, slave to the passions.” —David Hume

Logos Incontrovertible, indisputable facts Statistics Evidence, facts, statistics, comparisons, anecdotes, expert opinions, personal experiences, observations Syllogistic structure CAUTION: Many appeals are clothed in logical apparel but are NOT pure reason. Evidence that relies on interpretation is not, strictly speaking, an appeal to logos.

Ethos Appeal of the writer’s character, credibility, trustworthiness (ethical) Attempts to gain the respect of the audience Establishes the speaker’s or writer’s credibility Establishes common ground Often appeals to shared values—i.e., says “I’m one of you.”

Ethos Levels of diction: how a writer/speaker chooses words to address a particular audience Citing authorities (e.g., Einstein) Appearing humble, down to earth Employing humor Alluding to cultural, religious, literary values held by the audience

Pathos Appeal to emotion; passionate (pathetic) Attempts to draw on an audience’s pity, anger, hatred, etc. Powerful, truly persuasive speaking and writing is always filled with pathos

Pathos Diction Uses language to stir the feelings of the audience Imagery Metaphor Syntax (*especially if syntax supports meaning)

Using It All It is possible—even preferable—for a writer or speaker to make multiple appeals at the same time. Use information about the rhetorical situation to analyze rhetoric question and to create your own arguments

The Reader’s Rhetoric Logos Note the claims the author makes, the urgency Note the data the author provides in support of the claims. Note the conclusions the author draws. Ethos Note how the author establishes a persona Note how the author establishes credibility Note any revelation of the author's credentials or personal history Pathos Note the primary audience for the text Note the emotional appeals the author makes Note the author's expectations of the audience 

The Writer’s Rhetoric Logos Have I established the purpose for my text, and have I utilized the most effective genre? Have I established a clear, reasonable, and logical progression of my ideas? Have I addressed opposing arguments or perspectives? Ethos Have I established the appropriate persona? Have I established my credibility? Have I expressed my knowledge and expertise of the topic? Pathos Have I considered the primary audience, the background they have? Does my audience agree with me or will I have to persuade them of the validity of my argument? How will I make my text appeal to my audience?  

Rogerian Appeals The importance of listening to what others say and --------- Emphasis on….

Arrangement of Arguments Classical Arrangement 531 Introduction Background Information Proposition Proof or confirmation Refutation Concession Conclusion

Rogerian Introduction Concessions Thesis Support Conclusion

Rogerian Arrangement 1. An introduction to the problem and a demonstration that the opponent's position is understood. 2. A statement of the contexts in which the opponent's position may be valid. 3. A statement of the writer's position, including the contexts in which it is valid. 4. A statement of how the opponent's position would benefit if he were to adopt elements of the writer's position. If the writer can show that the positions complement each other, that each supplies what the other lacks, so much the better.

Other Guidelines Separate reasons in separate paragraphs ---why? Begin a paragraph with a different view…effect? Conclusion may reinforce purpose…effective?