Chapter 7 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Physical Development in Early Childhood Skeletal growth: new epiphyses emerge lose baby teeth Brain development: rapid growth of the prefrontal cortex hemispheres continue to lateralize Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Handedness Reflects dominant cerebral hemisphere: right-handed (90%)— left hemisphere left-handed (10%)— both hemispheres Jointly influenced by nature and nurture: position in uterus practice Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Elena Stepanova/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Brain Development in Early Childhood Left hemisphere especially active: language skills handedness Links among parts of the brain increase: cerebellum reticular formation hippocampus corpus callosum Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Figure 7.2 Cross‐section of the human brain, showing the location of the cerebellum, the reticular formation, the hippocampus, and the corpus callosum Figure 7.2 Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Influences on Physical Growth and Health Heredity and hormones: growth hormone thyroid-stimulating hormone Nutrition Infectious disease: malnutrition immunization Childhood injuries Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © CandyBox Images/Fotolia Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Nutrition in Early Childhood Appetite declines Wariness of new foods is adaptive Needs a high-quality diet Imitates others’ food choices Poor-quality diet is associated with cognitive deficits and behavior problems Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Infectious Disease and Malnutrition Poor diet depresses immune system Illness reduces appetite Diarrhea a danger in developing countries; can be helped by oral rehydration therapy zinc supplements Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Creativa/Fotolia Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Immunizations Many U.S. children lack immunizations Reasons include cost parents’ stressful daily lives misconceptions about vaccine safety Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Jaimie Duplass/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Factors Related to Childhood Injuries Gender and temperament Poverty, single parenthood, low parental education Societal conditions: international differences teenage parents shortage of high-quality child care Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

International Death Rates Due to Injury Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Figure 7.3 International death rates due to unintentional injury among 1‐ to 14‐year‐olds Figure 7.3 (Adapted from World Health Organization, 2008.) Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Motor Development in Early Childhood Gross-motor skills: balance improves gait smooth and rhythmic by age 2 upper- and lower-body skills combine into more refined actions by age 5 greater speed and endurance Fine-motor skills: self-help: dressing, eating drawing and printing Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Progression of Drawing Skills Scribbles First representational forms: draws first recognizable pictures: 3 years draws boundaries and tadpole people: 3–4 years More complex drawings: 5–6 years Early printing: 4–6 years Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Figure 7.4 Examples of young children’s drawings. Figure 7.4 (Left: Reprinted by permission from Artful Scribbles by Howard Gardner. Available from Basic Books, an imprint of The Perseus Books Group. Copyright © 1982. Right: From E. Winner, “Where Pelicans Kiss Seals,” Psychology Today, 20[8], August 1986, p. 35. Reprinted by permission from the collection of Ellen Winner.) Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Individual Differences in Motor Skills Gender Boys excel in skills using force and power Girls excel in skills using balance and agility Practice Adult encouragement Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © locrifa/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Ages 2 to 7 Gains in mental representation: make-believe play symbol–real-world relations Limitations in thinking: egocentrism lack of conservation lack of hierarchical classification Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Early Childhood Development of Make-Believe With age, make-believe gradually detaches from real-life conditions becomes less self-centered becomes more complex Sociodramatic play develops Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Lisa Eastman/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Benefits of Make-Believe Play Contributes to cognitive and social skills Strengthens mental abilities: sustained attention memory language and literacy creativity regulation of emotion perspective taking Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Mat Hayward/Fotolia Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Dual Representation Viewing a symbolic object as both an object and a symbol Strengthens around age 3 Adult teaching can help: experiences with maps, photos, drawings, and make-believe play pointing out similarities of symbols to real world Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Egocentrism Failure to distinguish others’ viewpoints from one’s own Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Figure 7.5 Piaget’s three‐mountains problem Figure 7.5 Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Animistic Thinking Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Rob Marmion/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Conservation Understanding that physical characteristics remain the same when appearance changes: Centration: focus on one aspect to neglect of others Irreversibility: inability to mentally reverse a series of steps Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Figure 7.6 Some Piagetian conservation tasks. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Piagetian Conservation Tasks Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Figure 7.6 Some Piagetian conservation tasks Figure 7.6 Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Piaget’s Class Inclusion Problem Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Figure 7.7 A Piagetian class inclusion problem Figure 7.7 Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought Egocentrism Able to take others’ perspectives Animistic thinking results from incomplete knowledge of objects Logical thought Conservation evident on simplified tasks Reasons by analogy about physical changes Categorization Hierarchical classification evident in everyday knowledge Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Evaluation of Piaget Development of logical operations is gradual Disagreement over whether a preoperational stage really exists some experts deny the stage approach others support a flexible stage notion—a related set of competencies develops over an extended period Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Private speech Zone of proximal development Scaffolding: support of an “expert” Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Blend Images/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Children’s Private Speech For Piaget, “egocentric speech” For Vygotsky, the foundation for all higher cognitive processes Serves a self-guiding function; increases during challenging tasks Gradually internalized as silent, inner speech Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Zone of Proximal Development Scaffolding: Adults aid learning by adjusting support to child’s level of performance Effectiveness varies culturally Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Irina Schmidt/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory Helps us understand cultural variation in cognition Focuses on language, deemphasizes other routes to cognitive development Says little about how basic elementary capacities (motor, perceptual, attention, memory, and problem-solving skills) contribute to higher cognitive processes Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Gains in Information Processing Attention: inhibition, planning Memory: recognition, recall, episodic memory Theory of mind: false belief Emergent literacy Mathematical reasoning Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © David Huntley Creative/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Recognition and Recall Noticing that a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced Recall Generating a mental representation of an absent stimulus More difficult than recognition Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Episodic Memory Scripts: memory for familiar everyday events Autobiographical memory: memory for one-time events Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © auremar/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Autobiographical Memory Improves with cognitive and conversational skills Influence of adult interaction: elaborative style: fosters organized and detailed personal stories repetitive style: weak at promoting autobiographical recall Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Young Child’s Theory of Mind Early awareness of mental life: infancy through age 3 Mastery of false belief tasks: around age 4 Factors contributing to mastery of false belief: language executive function social experiences Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Fostering Emergent Literacy Language skills: phonological awareness vocabulary and grammar Informal literacy experiences: games interactive reading writing Books for low-SES families Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Ami Parikh/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Early Childhood Mathematical Reasoning Ordinality: order relationships between quantities 14–16 months Cardinality: when counting, last number is the total 3½–4 years Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Michael Jay Berlin/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Individual Differences in Early Childhood Mental Development Factors contributing to individual differences: home environment quality of child care, preschool, or kindergarten child-centered vs. academic early intervention programs educational media Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © auremar/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Features of a High-Quality Home Environment Stimulation: toys, games, reading language academic Physical organization Emotional support Modeling and encouragement Variety in stimulation No physical punishment Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Types of Preschool Child-Centered Children select from wide variety of activities Learn through play Academic Teachers structure learning Formal lessons: letter, numbers, colors, shapes repetition and drill Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Practice Physical setting Group size Caregiver–child ratio Daily activities Adult–child interactions Teacher qualifications Relationships with parents Licensing and accreditation Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Educational Media Television is most common form Slow-paced, narrative programs are most effective: gains in early literacy, math skills more elaborate make-believe play higher academic achievement Excessive entertainment TV can be harmful Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Learning with Computers Can support writing skills Improves problem solving and metacognition Excessive use for entertainment can be harmful Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © InesBazdar/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Language Development in Early Childhood Vocabulary: fast-mapping Grammar: overregularization Conversation: pragmatics Supporting language development: recasts expansions Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Vocabulary Development Fast-mapping: object names verbs modifiers Coins new words Uses metaphors Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Strategies for Word Learning Mutual exclusivity bias Shape bias Cues in sentence structure Rich social information Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Levranii/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Grammatical Development Basic rules: subject–verb–object structure between ages 2 and 3 small additions to sentences to express meaning: “-s,” variations of “to be” Overregularization Complex structures: question-asking, passive voice, embedded sentences, indirect objects Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Pragmatics 2-year-olds can engage in effective conversation By age 4, adjusts speech to fit listener’s age, sex, social status Challenging situations, such as telephone conversations Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Roger costa morera/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Supporting Early Childhood Language Conversation with adults Recasts: restructuring inaccurate speech to correct form Expansions: elaborating on children’s speech Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk © Jenkedco/Shutterstock Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Readers may view, browse, and/or download material for temporary copying purposes only, provided these uses are for noncommercial personal purposes. Except as provided by law, this material may not be further reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, adapted, performed, displayed, published, or sold in whole or in part, without prior written permission from the publisher. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.