Course Design __ Theories of Learning Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach a man how to fish and you feed him for a lifetime. (Chinese Proverb)

*Language can only be properly understood as a reflection of human thought process. *Language learning is conditioned by the way in which the mind observes, organises, and store information. *In other words, the key successsful language learning and teaching lies not in the analysis of the nature of language but in understanding the structure and process of the mind.

Behaviourism : learning as habit formation Based mainly on the work of Pavlov in the Soviet Union and of Skinner in the U.S. This simple but powerful theory said that learning is a mechanical process of habit formation and proceeds by means of frequent reinforcement of a stimulus-response sequence.

Cont. This theory saw language as behavioural skill where learners recieve a stimulus (such as a cue in a drill), respond (by providing the correct utterance) and then have correct responses reinforced. Corrective feedback to correct bad habits  Learning can also occur through imitation.

Behaviourism:cont It provided the theoritical underpinning of the widely used Audiolingual Method of the 1950s and 1960s. The role of the learners in Audio-lingualism came to be portrayed as that of an ‘empty vassel’ who needs do no more than take part in the drills organised by the teacher to learn the target language.

Mentalism: thinking as rule governed activity- Universal Grammar Theory. Chomsky (1964) tackled behaviourism on the question of how the mind was able to transfer what was learnt in one stimulus response sequence to other novel situations. Does not explain the creativity of children in generating language. i.e how can kids overcome grammatical errors without their parents’ correction? Chomsky argued that language is not just a learnt habit but something created by the speaker using an innate language facility.

cont. Basic Tenets o    A mentalist viewpoint related to nativism and cognitive theory. o    The idea that of Chomsky that all children are born with Language Acquisition Device (Hadley 2001 pg 58). o    Language learning depends on biological mechanisms.  o    Children are innately programmed to learn language. o    Each language has its own “parameter settings”. o    The principles that children discover represent their “core grammar” which relates to general principles that correspond to all languages. o    All human brain contains language universals that direct language acquisition  ( Horwitz 2008) This view led to the cognitive theory of learning.

Cont. Critique  o    Is based on first language learning so it may not apply to second language acquisition. o    The way adults and children learn is different. o    Does not consider social factors or individual differences that affect language learning. .  o    Motivation and attitudes towards the target language does not come into play in this theory.  o    It is very Complex  o    Only looks at product data

Cognitive Code: learners as thinking beings. Whereas behaviourist theory portrayed the learner as a lappsive receiver or information, the cognitive view takes the learner to be an active processor of information. Learning and using a rule require learners to think, that is to apply their mental powers in order to distil a workable generative rule from the mass of data presented, and then to analyse the situation where the application of the rule will be useful or appropriate.

Cognitive Theory (Ausubel, McLaughlin, Bialystok, Ellis, Anderson, and others) Basic tenets  o    Based on internal and mental processes. o    Focuses on transferring, simplification, generalization, and restructuring that involve second language acquisition.  o    Language learning is the result from internal mental activity.  o    Emphasizes that knowledge and new learning is organized in a mental structure. o    Learner acts, constructs, and plans its own learning o    Analyzes own learning o    Positive and negative feedback is important for restructuring.  o     Proficiency develops trough practice and then it becomes automatic.   o    Once new information it’s acquired, existed knowledge is reorganized.   o    Ausubel emphasizes that learning language needs to be meaningful in order to be effective and permanent (Hadley 2001, pg 69).   

Critique o    Needs more clarification when referring to complex cognitive skill.  o    Does not explain when and how some features of the first language are transfer to the second language and why some don’t transfer. 

Cont. The basic teaching technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem- solving task. In ESP, such exercise have been often modelled on activities associated with the leraners’ subject specialism. Cognitive view had a significant impact on ESP through the development of courses to teach reading strategies.

The affective factor: learners as emotional being. Before learners actively think about something, they must want to think about it. Emotional reaction to the learning experience is the essential foundation for the initiation of the cognitive process. How the learning is perceived by the learner will affect what learning, if any, will take place.

cont This led to the most important elements in the development of learning – motivation. The most influential study of motivation in language learning conducted by Gardner and Lambert (1972)studying the bilingualism in French speaking Canada. They identified 2 forms of motivation: Instrumental and integrative.

Cont. Instrumental motivation is the reflection of an external need. The learners are not learning a language because they want to (although this does not implythat they do not want to) , but rather because they need to. It may: the need to pass an examination, the need to sell things to speakers of the language, the need to read texts in the language for work or study, etc.

Cont. Integrative motivation On the other hand, this motivation derives from a desire on the part of the learners to be members of the speech community that uses a particular language. It is an internally want rather than an externally imposed need.

If your students are not fired with burning enthusiasm by the obvious releance of the ESP materials, remember that they are people not machines. The medicine of relevance materials may still be need to be sweetened with the sugar of enjoyment, fun, creativity and a sense of achievement.

The writer conclusion It is important , therefore, not to base any approach too narrowly on one theory. As with the language descriptions, it is wise to take an eclectic approach, taking what is useful from each theory, and trsuting also in the evidence of your own experience as a teacher. It is probable that there are cognitive, affective, and behaviourist aspect to learning, and each can be a resource to the ESP practitioner.

Cont. For example, you may choose a behaviourist approach to the teaching of pronunciation, a cognitive approach to the teaching of grammar, and use affective criteria in selecting your texts.