Biodiversity Variety of the earth’s species, the genes they contain, the ecosystems in which they live, and the ecosystem processes such as energy flow and nutrient cycling that sustain all life.

Red lists ICUN – International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Published list of threatened species www. iucnredlist.org

Least Concern A species with adequate numbers to sustain the population. Stable or increasing populations

Near Threatened Species has adequate number to currently sustain the population There is either a downward trend or an anticipated downward trend The Aye-Aye is a near-threatened species

Vulnerable The species may not have adequate numbers to sustain itself Population trend is typically decreasing A recovering species can also be vulnerable Good news! The Giant Panda is no longer endangered!

Endangered The species is in danger of becoming extinct African Penguins are endangered due to decreasing habitat and frequent oil spills

Critically Endangered Species will likely go extinct soon if no action is taken

Some species are more prone to extinction: K-strategists Specialists Tertiary consumers Fixed migratory patterns Narrow distribution Commercially valuable Large territories

Extinction – the loss of a species Background extinction – low rate of extinctions Mass extinction-high rate of extinctions due to specific cause Climate change

Extinction Rate The percentage of species that go extinct within a certain time period The current extinction rate is increasing at an alarming rate due to human activities

Human Caused Extinction Causes include: HIPPO C Habitat Destruction Invasive species Population Growth Pollution Over-harvesting Climate Change

Biodiversity Hot Spots A hotspot is an area where there are many threatened and endangered species There are currently 34 hotspots in the world today

Types of Diversity Species diversity – number and abundance of species Ecological diversity – number of ecosystems in an area Functional diversity – number of tropic levels Genetic diversity – variety of genetic material within a species

Theory of Natural Selection Explains how life has evolved from a common ancestor

Survival of the fittest Organisms suited for the environment will survive to reproduce, thus passing down desirable traits. Examples: Giraffes Camels Influenza virus Venus fly trap NOTE – fittest does not equal strongest!!!

How Geological Processes influence biodiversity: Location (rainforest vs. tundra) Continental movement- earthquakes and volcanoes Climate change- cyclic cooling and heating of the earth Catastrophic events- asteroid impacts, tsunamis, hurricanes, floods

Speciation - formation of a new species Two Phases 1. Geographic isolation A population is removed from others of it’s species for a long period of time 2. Reproductive isolation The removed population becomes so genetically different over time that it can no longer interbreed with others of it’s species

225 million years ago 225 million years ago 135 million years ago Figure 4.5 Geological processes and biological evolution. Over millions of years the earth’s continents have moved very slowly on several gigantic tectonic plates. This process plays a role in the extinction of species as land areas split apart and promote the rise of new species when once isolated land areas combine. Rock and fossil evidence indicates that 200–250 million years ago all of the earth’s present-day continents were locked together in a supercontinent called Pangaea (top left). About 180 million years ago, Pangaea began splitting apart as the earth’s huge plates separated and eventually resulted in today’s locations of the continents (bottom right). 65 million years ago Present Fig. 4-5, p. 88

Continental Movement

Measurements of Biodiversity Species diversity = species richness – the number of different species in a community Species evenness – the abundance of species in a community

Richness and Sustainability Higher species richness = higher productivity = higher sustainability Reasons: More likely to withstand droughts, disease, climate change, nutrient shortages Higher number of producers lead to a higher biomass which leads to more carbon and nitrogen cycling

Case Study: The Whooping Crane

Habitat loss and unregulated hunted led to a severe decrease in the species In 1941 there were an estimated 14 whooping cranes left in the wild The decline in this species was a major factor leading up to the creation of the Endangered Species Act

Saving the Whooping Crane Ex-situ conservation: Conservation outside of the natural habitat In-situ conservation: Conservation in the natural habitat A combination of techniques was used to save the Whooping Crane

Teaching migration

The Endangered Species Act Established in 1973 Overseen by the US Fish and Wildlife Service Penalties of violating the act: http://www.gc.noaa.gov/schedules/6-ESA/EnadangeredSpeciesAct.pdf Funded by US taxes and penalty money

The Act: authorizes the determination and listing of species as endangered and threatened; prohibits unauthorized taking, possession, sale, and transport of endangered species; provides authority to acquire land for the conservation of listed species, using land and water conservation funds; authorizes establishment of cooperative agreements and grants-in-aid to States that establish and maintain active and adequate programs for endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; authorizes the assessment of civil and criminal penalties for violating the Act or regulations; and authorizes the payment of rewards to anyone furnishing information leading to arrest and conviction for any violation of the Act or any regulation issued thereunder.

Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act Biodiversity hotspots in relation to the largest concentrations of rare and potentially endangered species in the U.S. Figure 11-18

CITES Convention for the International Trade of Endangered Species - CITES Is a voluntary agreement among participating countries to stop the trade of listed species 180 countries participate: 5,600 animal species and 30,000 animals are protected under this act

Habitat Fragmentation Habitat fragmentation is when an ecosystem is divided by a highway, neighborhood, buildings or other structures/land uses. Leads to: Decreased genetic diversity Loss of habitat Loss of breeding grounds May disrupt migration patterns Disruption of food chains

www.conservationcooridor.org

Solutions to Habitat Fragmentation Protect the land – National & State Parks and Forests Introduce breeding programs and wildlife release to increase genetic diversity. Build Wildlife Cooridors

Bridges for animals – Wildlife Corridors Source: ourcollectivegood.com

Save the elephants.org

Wildlife Corridors in Colorado

Fishing Deadliest Catch

Fishing Problems & Techniques The major decline in the worldwide catch of fish since 1990 is because of over-fishing. By-catch- fish or animals that were not meant to be caught.

Overfishing and Extinction: Gone Fishing, Fish Gone About 75% of the world’s commercially valuable marine fish species are over fished or fished near their sustainable limits. Big fish are becoming scarce. Smaller fish are next. We throw away 30% of the fish we catch. We needlessly kill sea mammals and birds.

Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills Trawler fishing Fish farming in cage Spotter airplane Sonar Purse-seine fishing Trawl flap Trawl lines Fish school Trawl bag Drift-net fishing Long line fishing Float Buoy Figure 12.A Natural capital degradation: major commercial fishing methods used to harvest various marine species. These methods have become so effective that many fish species have become commercially extinct. Lines with hooks Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills Fig. 12-A, p. 255

Trawler Fishing Catches shrimp, shellfish, flounder and other anials that live on the ocean floor Drags a funnel shaped net along the ocean floor, weighted down with chains or metal plates Some nets are large enough to hold 12 jumbo jets!!

Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills Trawler fishing Fish farming in cage Spotter airplane Sonar Purse-seine fishing Trawl flap Trawl lines Fish school Trawl bag Drift-net fishing Long line fishing Float Buoy Figure 12.A Natural capital degradation: major commercial fishing methods used to harvest various marine species. These methods have become so effective that many fish species have become commercially extinct. Lines with hooks Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills Fig. 12-A, p. 255

Purse Seines Purse Seine Example

Purse Seines A large purse-like net is put into the ocean and is then closed like a drawstring purse to trap the fish. Tuna is a fish typically caught in purse seines Dolphins are a by-catch of purse seines

Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills Trawler fishing Fish farming in cage Spotter airplane Sonar Purse-seine fishing Trawl flap Trawl lines Fish school Trawl bag Drift-net fishing Long line fishing Float Buoy Figure 12.A Natural capital degradation: major commercial fishing methods used to harvest various marine species. These methods have become so effective that many fish species have become commercially extinct. Lines with hooks Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills Fig. 12-A, p. 255

Long-line fishing Lines are put out that can be up to 80 miles long w/ thousands of baited hooks on them. These are left out free-floating for days and then the boat comes back and picks them up. Pilot whales, dolphins, sea turtles, and birds are by-catch of this technique.

Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills Trawler fishing Fish farming in cage Spotter airplane Sonar Purse-seine fishing Trawl flap Trawl lines Fish school Trawl bag Drift-net fishing Long line fishing Float Buoy Figure 12.A Natural capital degradation: major commercial fishing methods used to harvest various marine species. These methods have become so effective that many fish species have become commercially extinct. Lines with hooks Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills Fig. 12-A, p. 255

Drift-net fishing Each net hangs as much as 50 feet below the surface and up to 34 miles long. Anything that comes into contact w/ these nearly invisible nets are entangled. This leads to overfishing Many unwanted fish and marine mammals, turtles and seabirds are caught.

Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills Trawler fishing Fish farming in cage Spotter airplane Sonar Purse-seine fishing Trawl flap Trawl lines Fish school Trawl bag Drift-net fishing Long line fishing Float Buoy Figure 12.A Natural capital degradation: major commercial fishing methods used to harvest various marine species. These methods have become so effective that many fish species have become commercially extinct. Lines with hooks Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills Fig. 12-A, p. 255

Regulations on Fishing Marine and mammal protection act - provides for protection and conservation of marine mammals Magnuson Act- Sets quotas, size limits and seasons for fishing UN Law of the Seas – allows countries to establish fishing quotas Marine Sanctuaries Act- provides protected habitat for marine organisms