learning Chapter 7

Basic Learning Concepts What is learning? Process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors How do we learn? Through association: Certain events occur together (Classical conditioning); Stimuli that are not control are associated and response is automatic (respondent behavior) Through consequences: Association between a response and consequences is learned (Operant conditioning) Through acquisition of mental information that guides behavior: Cognitive learning

Classical Conditioning Watson Influenced by Pavlov Theoretical goal of science of psychology is prediction and control of behavior Behaviorism Psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Classical Conditioning Pavlov Studied digestive system; first Russian Nobel Prize (1904) Demonstrated associative learning via salivary conditioning Founder of Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s study of dog’s digestive systems opened the door to classical conditioning

Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning: Type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Neutral stimulus (NS): In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning Unconditioned response (UR): In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth) Unconditioned stimulus (US): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally— naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

Classical Conditioning Acquisition Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response Extinction Diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS) Spontaneous recovery Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Generalization Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses Discrimination Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli

Classical Conditioning

Applications of Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Legacy Consensus among psychologists that classical conditioning is basic learning form Many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms. Pavlov demonstrated how a learning process can be studied objectively. Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species.

Applications of Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s principles are used to influence human health and well-being Areas of consciousness, motivation, emotion, health, psychological disorders, therapy Addicts counseled to avoid stimuli that may trigger cravings Pairing particular taste with drug that influences immune responses may eventually lead to response from taste alone.

Applications of Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s work also provided a basis for Watson’s ideas that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly conditioned responses. Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of “Little Albert” to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned. Used in advertising When you hear “$5 footlong” you automatically think of what food chain?

Operant Conditioning Behavior operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli. Organisms associate their own actions with consequences. Actions followed by reinforcement increase; those followed by punishments often decrease.

Operant Conditioning Skinner Expanded on Thorndike’s law of effect Developed behavioral technology and principles of behavior control Designed and used the Skinner box for experiments and recorded responses A Skinner box Inside the box, the rat presses a bar for a food reward. Outside, a measuring device (not shown above) records the animal’s accumulated responses.

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning Everyday behaviors are continually reinforced and shaped. Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens a preceding response Shaping: Gradually guiding toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Operant Conditioning Primary: Is unlearned; innately reinforcing stimuli Conditioned (secondary): Gains power through association with primary reinforcer Immediate: Occurs immediately after a behavior Delayed: Involves time delay between desired response of and delivery of reward

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement schedule Includes pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced Continuous reinforcement schedule Involves reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs Partial (intermittent) reinforcement Includes schedule reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Operant Conditioning Fixed- ratio schedule: In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. Variable-ratio: Schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Fixed-interval schedule: In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. Variable-interval schedule: In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Operant Conditioning Fixed Variable Ratio Every so many: reinforcement after every nth behavior, such as buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay workers per product unit produced After an unpredictable number: reinforcement after a random number of behaviors, as when playing slot machines or fly fishing Interval Every so often: reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time, such as Tuesday discount prices Unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time, as when checking for a Facebook response

Operant Conditioning Punishment administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child’s disobedience). Positive punishment Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future Negative punishment Removing a desired stimulus after particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in reducing behavior in future

Applications of Operant Conditioning At school: Computer and adaptive learning software used in teaching and learning In sports: Behavioral methods implemented in shaping behavior in athletic performance At work: Rewards successfully used to increase productivity At home: Basic rules of shaping used in parenting

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Basic idea Organism associates events. Organism associates behavior and resulting events. Response Involuntary, automatic. Voluntary, operates on environment. Acquisition Associating events; NS is paired with US and becomes CS. Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher). Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone. Responding decreases when reinforcement stops. Spontaneous recovery The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR. The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response. Generalization The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS. Organism’s response to similar stimuli is also reinforced. Discrimination The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US. Organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced.

Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on classical conditioning Garcia and Koelling’s taste-aversion research Animals and humans seem biologically prepared to learn some associations rather than others Conditioning is stronger when the CS is ecologically relevant Genetic predisposition to associate CS with a US that follows predictably and immediately is adaptive

Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on operant conditioning Nature limits species’ capacity for operant conditioning Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive Instinctive drift occurs as animals revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Cognition Processes and Classical Conditioning Mental information that guides behavior is acquired through cognitive learning. Animal learning of predictability of event (Rescorla and Wagner, 1972) British children conditioning of ice-cream associated characters (Field, 2006) Adult gut-level liking for characters associated with positive stimuli (Olson and Fazio, 2001) Stronger likes and dislikes when notice and awareness of associations learned (Shanks, 2010)

Cognition Processes and Operant Conditioning Skinner Discounted importance of cognition Evidence of cognitive processes Animal response on fixed-interval reinforcement schedule Development of cognitive map in rats (latent learning) Destruction of intrinsic motivation by excessive rewards

Learning by Observation Observational learning Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others Bandura Pioneer researcher of observational learning Modeling Bobo doll experiment Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment

Learning by Observation Mirror neurons Include frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so Brain’s mirroring of another’s action May enable imitation and empathy

Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial effects Behavior modeling enhances learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills in new employees Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar behavior in others Across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior Socially responsive toddlers tend to have strong internalized conscience as preschoolers

Applications of Observational Learning Antisocial effects Abusive parents may have aggressive children Watching TV and videos may teach children Bullying is effective tool for controlling others Free and easy sex has little later consequences Men should be tough; women should be gentle Violence-viewing effect