Chapter 10 Sex and Gender

Let’s Talk about sex! House Bill 1523 or Religious Freedom Bill Photo Credit- Associated Press House Bill 1523 or Religious Freedom Bill The Mississippi legislation protects only three beliefs or convictions: marriage is between a man and a woman that sex is "properly reserved to such a marriage," and words like "male" and "female" are "objectively determined by anatomy and genetics at birth." © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

(Sex)uality is all around us People “do it” Scientists “study it” Governments may try to regulate it Public school boards battle over sex education curriculum Commercials may use it to sell products Porn is the top internet destination Politicians may battle over same sex marriage The military may struggle with growing sexual abuse incidents © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Questions to address What is “natural” about human sexuality? How do people in different cultures approach sex and sexuality? Why do they approach it differently or similarly? © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Sanders and Reinisch, 2006 Would you say that you “had sex” with someone if the most intimate behavior you engaged in was…? Kissing Petting Oral sex Anal Penetration Vaginal Intercourse © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Kinsey, Masters & Johnson © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Define Sexuality In groups of 2-3, define sexuality. The definition must be as complete as possible. Sexuality is the complete range of desires, beliefs, and behaviors that are related to erotic physical contact and the cultural arena within which people debate about what kinds of physical desires and behaviors are right, appropriate, and natural. © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Fieldwork- switching sexes Women/Men, if you woke up tomorrow and you were a man/woman, how would your life be different? Start from the minute you wake up. What would your morning routine be like? What would you do in the bathroom? What would you wear? What would you eat? What might you experience at school or at work? What would happen after school or work? Would being of the opposite sex change what you do or say and where you go? Would people respond to you differently? © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Sex and gender Sex refers to the biological differences between male and female Primary and secondary sexual characteristics Gender refers to the social classification of masculine and feminine. Thoughts and behavior associated with each Gender is a continuum What is masculine and what is feminine? http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Genders How many genders exist in the world? © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

The Hijras of India The hijras are an ambiguous gender role in India. Though born male, they are considered neither man nor woman. Hijras undergo an operation in which their genitals are surgically removed. Their presence is required at weddings and at the birth of a child.

Ardha-naare-eshwara

Other societies include: Mahu of Polynesia Xanith of Oman on the Beyond Male and Female Other societies include: Mahu of Polynesia Xanith of Oman on the Saudi Arabian peninsula Some Native American tribes Kathoey of Thailand http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/content/two-spirits_map-html/

How many sexes are there? © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Margaret Mead Developed the central anthropological principle that gender is a cultural construction Key findings in three New Guinean societies Arapesh: Both sexes acted in ways Americans consider “feminine.” Mundugamor: Both sexes acted in ways Americans consider “masculine.” Tchambuli: Men acted in ways Americans consider “feminine” and women acted in ways Americans consider “masculine.”

Cultural Construction of Gender The idea that gender characteristics are not inborn but constructed within each culture Gender ideology- A society’s totality of ideas about sex gender and the natures of men and women, including their sexuality, and the relations between the genders.

Bullfighting in Spain Bullfighting is an aesthetic ritual expressing male gender value. The ritualized violence is carried out with grace, skill, and courage. The male matador is the central element; he should be able to kill the bull quickly with elegance and poise and distinguish himself as a “man of honor.”

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Rugby In Tonga Rugby was introduced into Tonga in the early 20th century. Rugby is essential in male socialization. It provides skills and the ability to learn resourcefulness. It contains the Tongan male “ideals:” virility, fortitude, and controlled aggression.

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Theories for Gender Role Formation Compatibility with childcare theory – women’s tasks tend to be compatible with childcare Economy of effort theory- advantageous for each gender to take on tasks that are related in some way Expendability theory- The loss of men is less disadvantageous than the loss of women © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Cultural Sexual Behaviors Cultures vary in what is considered erotic. Before the Tahitians learned to kiss from the Europeans, they began sexual intimacy by sniffing. The Trobriand Islanders inspected each other for lice if they felt fond of each other.

Homosexuality and Culture Adolescent boys in Sambia have homosexual relations as part of initiation but enter heterosexual marriages as adults. In the United States, consistent heterosexuality is considered essential to masculine identity.

Sexuality and Culture Sexual norms affect sexual behavior. Cultures differ in: Age that sexuality begins and ends Ways people make themselves attractive Importance of sexual activity .

Ireland: Inis Beag Society Described as “one of the most sexually naïve of the world’s societies.” Women are expected to endure sex. Refusing intercourse is a mortal sin. .

Ireland: Inis Beag Society Culturally patterned sexual repression Absence of sexual foreplay Belief that sexual activity weakens men Absence of premarital sex High percentage of celibate males Extraordinarily late age of marriage .

Polynesia: Mangaia Adolescent boys are given sexual instruction and an experience with a woman in the village. Practically every girl and boy has had intercourse before marriage. Female frigidity, male celibacy, and homosexuality are practically unknown.

Male Initiation Rites Culturally validate male dominance Legitimate a change of status from child to adult Involve an extended period of separation, during which the initiates learn the beliefs, skills, and knowledge necessary to participate as a functioning adult in society.

Male Initiation rites of passage © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Manhood Puzzle Anthropologist David Gilmore calls the widespread male need to publicly test and prove one’s manhood the manhood puzzle. Gilmore suggests that cultural patterns of “proving manhood” help ensure men will fulfill roles as procreators, providers, and protectors.

Female Initiation Rites Generally performed at menarche (first menstruation) Occur in more societies than male initiation rites .

Female Initiation Rites Research indicates much cross-cultural variability. Sometimes the initiate is isolated from society; sometimes she is the center of attention. Some rituals are elaborate and take years to perform; others are performed with little ceremony.

Lack of rituals (?) "This lack of a clear puberty ritual often creates confusion about the roles we are expected to play" Richley Crapo, Anthropologist © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Gender Stratification The ways gendered activities and attributes are related to the distribution of resources, prestige, and power in a society. .

Feminization of poverty The “feminization of poverty” was a term first coined in a 1978 article that examined changes in women’s economic status between 1950 and 1976 (Pearce, 1978). More women tend to be poor than men More female headed households tend to be poorer than male headed households Cultural reasons for this poverty? © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Private/Public Dichotomy Women’s status is lowered by their cultural identification with the home and children (private). Men are identified with prestigious economic and political roles (public).

Gender Relations in Foraging Societies Gender relations were egalitarian. Women and men could achieve prestige through their own efforts. Sexual division of labor was not rigid. Women often acted as negotiators and handled the money for long-distance trade. .

Gender Relations in Horticultural Societies High degree of segregation between the sexes Myths “explain” why women are socially inferior to men and why men and women have different roles.

Gender Relations in Pastoral and Agricultural Societies Pastoral and agricultural societies tend to be male dominated, though there is some variation. In pastoral societies women’s status depends on the degree to which the society combines herding with cultivation, its specific historical situation, and the diffusion of cultural ideas.

Gender Relations in the Global Economy In the United States, the view that women should be excluded from all but domestic and child rearing roles has been culturally dominant, and remains so among many Americans. More women than men may go to medical school, but they tend to take on less prestigious specializations after graduation. Domestic violence and sexual harassment are significant problems based on a cultural pattern that values control over women.

Bringing It Back Home: Violence against Women and the Cultural Defense Violence against women is an international problem and domestic violence is considered acceptable in many patriarchal societies, such as Kazakhstan, even though it is illegal. In countries where the customs are patriarchal, they sometimes use the “cultural defense” as a way of explaining their behavior.

Bringing It Back Home: Violence against Women and the Cultural Defense I In the United States a “cultural defense” does not usually work as explanation for violence against women, although at times it has been attempted and anthropologists have been involved. There is some questions about the ethics of anthropological participation in cases such as this.

Bringing It Back Home: Violence against Women and the Cultural Defense You decide: Given the dominant anthropological view that culture is diverse, dynamic, multifaceted, and shapes (but does not determine) behavior, what role, if any, do you think the cultural defense should be permitted to play in criminal cases involving domestic violence?

Bringing It Back Home: Violence against Women and the Cultural Defense You decide: What in your view would be the most effective local and/or national responses to domestic violence in the United States? What might be the most effective way of using anthropological expertise to decrease the rate of domestic violence in our own society or other cultures?

Quick Quiz © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Examination of evolutionary and historical changes in gender relations Which of the following does NOT describe anthropologists’ involvement in studies of gender? Examination of evolutionary and historical changes in gender relations An exclusive focus on women, children, and issues specific to women's lives Examination of how gender relations interrelate with other aspects of a society and culture © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Answer: b The following does not describe anthropologists’ involvement in studies of gender: An exclusive focus on women, children, and issues specific to women's lives © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

the public/private dichotomy. Anthropologists refer to the observation that in nearly all world cultures men test and prove their manhood as: the androgyny complex. the "manhood puzzle.” androcentrism. initiation. the public/private dichotomy. © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Answer: b Anthropologists refer to the observation that in nearly all world cultures men test and prove their manhood as the "manhood puzzle.” © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Women’s role in the economy of a society: may be improved by the introduction of new technology. often changes, so they have more leisure time to spend with their children. is often underestimated, so their status declines if machine technology is added. improves with technology and with being paid in cash for their hard work. diminishes as men take wage-labor jobs. © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Answer : c Women’s role in the economy of a society is often underestimated, so that their status declines if machine technology is added. © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

To say gender is “constructed” means: most cultures have few expectations about behavior as it relates to gender. masculine and feminine have different meanings (and associated behaviors) in different cultures. gender differences are actually superficial, given other concerns of people’s lifestyles. societies have developed ideas of two or more genders in planning their way of life. © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Answer: b To say that gender is "constructed" is to say that masculine and feminine have different meanings (and associated behaviors) in different cultures. © 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.