Making Ethical Decisions Fallacies Ethical Arguments

Ethical Argument Evaluative argument The extent to which that subject meets or fails to meet an ethical standard. Defines ethical standard to be used - Stipulative term - a definition that restricts the understanding of a term to a particular meaning appropriate to the context of your argument. The ethical argument evaluates a subject based on the extent to which that subject meets or fails to meet an ethical standard The purpose of an ethical argument is to define, clearly and precisely, the ethical standard to be used in the argument.  The stipulative term is a definition that restricts the understanding of a term to a particular meaning appropriate to the context of your argument.

Fallacies The result of hasty and uncritical thinking Are unintentional Deliberate fallacy committed is Fraud Selfish manipulation Unethical

Analyzing Ethical Arguments Identifying argument (Re)Constructing argument Evaluating argument Deductive vs inductive Validity and soundness An argument is a group of statements, some of which (the premises) are intended to help convince us that one or more of the statements (the conclusion[s]) are true. Incomplete arguments Deductive v. inductive arguments In a good deductive argument, the premises entail the conclusion. That is, if the premises are all true, then the conclusion has to be true. In a good inductive argument, the premises probabilize the conclusion. That is, if the premises are all true, then the conclusion probably is true.   Validity and soundness of deductive arguments An argument is valid if its form or logical structure guarantees that if the premises are all true then the conclusion is also true. An argument is sound if both (1) it is valid in form, and (2) all of its premises are in fact true.

Never an end Would you do the same thing again? What would you alter?

Ethical Theories Provide framework to Get at underlying rationale Classify and understand arguments Defend conclusions about right and wrong

Relativism What is ethical depends on the individual, the group, the culture, tradition, background Cultures differ widely in their moral practices Anthropologists point to a range of practices considered morally acceptable in some societies but condemned in others, including infanticide, genocide, polygamy, racism, sexism, and torture. Such differences may lead us to question whether there are any moral principles or whether morality is merely a matter of "cultural taste." Differences in moral practices across cultures raise an important issue in ethics -- the concept of "ethical relativism."

Utilitarianism One must act to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number Requires definition of good Requires computation of amount of good Places public good over private good Possible harmful to minorities and individuals, sacrificed for the majority It is the consequences, not the acts, that are right or wrong

Evaluating Ethical Principles and Theories Clarity Coherence Consistency Completeness

Clarity Make sure that we understand what it means and what it applies to. "Murder is wrong" -- does this include engaging in an action that has death as a predictable side-effect? "Thou shall not kill" -- does this include killing in war? An embryo? An animal? A plant? A species?

Coherence Ask whether various moral principles fit together in a reasonable way. A classic example is the pairing of the claims (a) it is always wrong to kill a person and (b) convicted murderers deserve to be executed. Coherence is basically a question of how well our moral claims fit together, and goes beyond questions of logical contradiction.

Consistency Ask whether the principle or theory conflicts with out basic, deeply held moral intuitions. If a principle leads to the conclusion that it's morally acceptable to torture a two-month old infant because "I wanted to see what it would feel like to do that," we ought to reject it. People who happily eat pork chops, but identify "it's wrong to eat dogs" as a basic moral intuition, will have to dig a bit deeper.

Completeness This is a matter of how much of our moral life, moral problems, and moral decisions is covered by the principle or theory in question. Most moral principles apply to a limited range of cases, but any principle which applies to a very limited range of cases should be examined carefully. (When evaluating moral theories, however, comprehensiveness is always central virtue.)

Make a decision -- Which action is the right thing to do? What would someone you respect say if you told them the decision?