Levels of Linguistic Analysis Prof. Nitin Doke Deptt Levels of Linguistic Analysis Prof. Nitin Doke Deptt. of English nitindoke@rediffmail.com 9421296860

Introduction For Language study, areas are marked and subdivided – it helps in analytic & systematic study Language has linear and hierarchical structure Language is made up of smaller units which are made up of still smaller units & finally smallest indivisible unit – single distinguishable sound called phoneme

Introduction (contd..) Other way round also possible – Phonemes combine to make up morphemes which combine to make up words which combine to make up phrases and sentences ….. Text or discourse At each stage (or level) certain rules operate which permit occurrence and combination of smaller units

Rules? (Conventions) Rules of phonology determine occurrence and combination of particular phonemes (sp/pl/pr/sk/sl ) Rules for word formation – behaviour of morphemes (unfaithfully) Rules of sentence formation – combination & positioning of words in a sentence So each level is a system in itself.

Rules? (Conventions) Because of rules at each level, we can analyse each level independently of the other Although each level is linked to the other in hierarchy, still it is independent because of distinct rules that can be described, analyzed and understood. Each level of analysis corresponds to each level of the structure of language

Levels Levels of Analysis Levels of structure Phonetics & Phonology Sounds Morphology Word formation Syntax sentence formation Semantics Meanings Pragmatics(Discourse) Connected sentences in context

Levels of language linked Levels of language are not completely separate, important & vital linkages are present Earlier thought – Phonology had no link with semantics Now we know – Link much more complex than thought earlier e.g discourse made up of all levels working together, Semantics has analysis both at words & sentence meaning

Levels (Brief description) Phonetics: Phonetics explores how the linguistically relevant sounds in the languages of the world are produced, and how these sounds are perceived Studies language at the level of sounds: articulated by the human speech mechanism & received by auditory mechanism Articulatory/ Auditory/ Acoustic Phonetics Minimal distinctive contrastive unit of speech- Phoneme

Phonetics (contd..) It studies how sounds can be distinguished and characterized by the manner in which they are produced It also talks about different symbols (phonetic symbols) used for different sounds / alphabets

Phonology Phonology: Phonology examines how sounds pattern in languages, how sounds are combined to make words, how sounds near each other affect each other and how sounds are affected by where in the word/phrase they occur. (comfort/ wind mill/ good girl) Studies the formation of syllables and larger units

Phonology (contd..) It studies combination of sounds into organized units of speech, the formation of syllable and larger units. It describes the sound system of a particular language & the combination and distribution of sounds which occur in that language.

Phonology (contd..) Classification is made on the basis of the concept of phoneme i.e /m/, /g/,/p/. These distinct sounds enter into combination with others – rules of combination are different in different languages

Morphology Morphology: Morphology examines the structure of words and the principles that govern the formation of words. Words also made up of a number of units, the word ‘unhappiness’ involves three elements (or morphemes) un-, -happy- and –ness. Morphology deals with how languages add morphemes together. Morpheme- minimal, distinctive and grammatical/semantical unit

Morphology (contd..) It studies the patterns of formation of words by combination of sounds into minimal distinctive units of meaning called morphemes Morpheme cannot be broken – it will no longer make sense e.g bat (single morpheme) Single morpheme – bat or two morphemes bat + s Morpheme- Prefix, suffix (Inflectional/ Derivational) (class changing/ class maintaining)

Morphology (contd..) Level of morphology is related to phonology on the one hand and to semantics on the other take – took (change in one of the sounds) take the action take + time present change took the action take + time past in meaning

Syntax (Structure) Syntax: Syntax investigates the structure of sentences and the common principles that determine how phrases and sentences are built up from words. Linearity and hierarchy clearly visible here It also explores the way that languages vary in their application of these common principles by looking at the variation across languages. SVO/ SOV

Syntax (contd..) Syntax describes the rules of positioning of elements in a sentence – Noun /nouns syntax phrases, verb/verb phrases, adverbial phrases Syntax also describes the function of elements in a sentence e.g Noun ‘boy’ has different functions / roles in (a) & (b) (a) The boy likes cricket. (b) The old man loved the boy. (a) Sprinkle water on the plants (b) I watered the plants

Syntax (contd..) Rules of syntax should explain how grammatical & meaningful sentences are formed. e.g. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously (meaningless) The tree ate an elephant The bachelor gave birth to six children Ambiguity: Time flies She gave her dog biscuits He kissed her back

Semantics Semantics studies the meanings of words and sentences independently of any context. It is a factual/ surface level study of meaning Semantics seeks to explain how it is that we come to have such a clear understanding of the language we use. It analyses the structure of meaning in language.

Semantics (contd..) Example: Semantics analyzes how words similar and different are related; it attempts to show these inter-relationships through forming categories. Synonym/ antonym/ Homonym/ Homophone It attempts to analyze and define ‘abstract’ words. Example: easy to define ‘tree’, ‘table’ difficult to define ‘love’, ‘feel’ Ambiguity: They must be married The priest married the poor girl The dish is too hot to eat

Pragmatics Level of language analysis that studies meaning in context (Semantics doesn't) Our language use is guided by – who, whom, when, where, why, how Death Shut up/ be quite/would you please be quiet/would you please keep your voice down One of the most influential brains, David Crystal, states, "Pragmatics is the study of language from the point of view of users, especially of the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction and the effects their use of language has on other participants in the act of communication"

Pragmatics “Pragmatics can be usefully defined as the study of how utterances have meanings in situations.” (Leech, 1983:13) “Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said.” (Yule, 1996:3) Mey (2001:6) states, “Pragmatics studies the use of language in human communication as determined by the conditions of society.”

Pragmatics According to George Yule (1996:3) Pragmatics is concerned with the following four areas: a) Pragmatics studies speaker meaning: b)Pragmatic studies contextual meaning: c) Pragmatic studies how more gets communicated than what is said: d) Pragmatic studies relative distance: Speech Act/ Implicature/ Face/ Politeness…

Man: Does your dog bite? Woman: No. [The man reaches down to the pet the dog. The dog bites the man’s hand] Man: Ouch! Hey! You said your dog doesn’t bite. Women: He doesn’t. But that’s not my dog.

Sally: What’s the weather going to be like today? Harold: You should bring your umbrella. A: I am out of petrol B: There is a garage round the corner A: Smith doesn’t seem to have a girl friend these days. B: He has been paying a lot of visit to New York lately.

A:Let’s get the kids something. B: Okay, but I also Veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M-S a. Miss X sang ‘Home sweet Home.’ b. Miss X produced a series of sounds that corresponded closely with the score of ‘Home sweet home’

Discourse Discourse: a unit of text used by linguists for the analysis of linguistic phenomena that range over more than one sentence. formal and orderly and usually extended expression of thought on a subject connected speech or writing a linguistic unit (as a conversation or a story) larger than a sentence

Discourse (contd..) At discourse level we analyze inter-sentential links that form a connected or cohesive text. Cohesion – relation formed in a sentence between it and the sentences before it and after it, by using connectives By this study we can know how a piece of connected language can have greater meaning that is more than the sum of the individual sentences

Some other studies Graphology: study of the writing system of the language and conventions used in representing speech in writing – formation of letters Lexicology: studies the manner in which lexical items are grouped together as in compilation of dictionaries

Two views about scope Micro-linguistic: Study confined to phonology, morphology and syntax Macro-linguistic: Other aspects of language and its relationship with many areas of human activity

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