Fig. 1. Visual representation of [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D translocation in susceptible (A–E), resistant R1 (F), and resistant R2 (G) wild radish seedlings.

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Fig. 1. Visual representation of [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D translocation in susceptible (A–E), resistant R1 (F), and resistant R2 (G) wild radish seedlings. Photographs of each plant are shown to the left in each panel, and the corresponding phosphorimage of <sup>14</sup>C localization to the right. Hydroponically grown seedlings were spotted with [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D on a single leaf (indicated with an arrow on the photograph) 8h after addition of 10 μM NPA (B), TIBA (C), verapamil (D), valspodar (E), or a solvent control (A, F, G) to the nutrient solution, and harvested after a further 24h. Representative plants from three independent replicates are shown, with close-ups of the treated leaves from A–G shown in H–N. From: 2,4-D resistance in wild radish: reduced herbicide translocation via inhibition of cellular transport J Exp Bot. 2016;67(11):3223-3235. doi:10.1093/jxb/erw120 J Exp Bot | © The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology.This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Fig. 2. Quantification of [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D translocation in wild radish seedlings. The susceptible (A), resistant R1 (B), and resistant R2 (C) plants treated as described in the legend to Fig. 1 were separated into root, stem, untreated leaves, and treated leaf, and the <sup>14</sup>C in digests of each plant part quantified by liquid scintillation counting. Data are expressed as the percentage in each plant part of the total Bq g<sup>−1</sup> DW recovered, and are the mean ±SE of three independent replicates. Within each graph, different letters denote significant (P<0.05) differences between treatments and tissue types. From: 2,4-D resistance in wild radish: reduced herbicide translocation via inhibition of cellular transport J Exp Bot. 2016;67(11):3223-3235. doi:10.1093/jxb/erw120 J Exp Bot | © The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology.This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Fig. 7. Effect of malathion on 2,4-D metabolism in wild radish (WR; pooled biotypes), wheat, and bean. Extracts of plants treated with (+) or without (–) malathion before the application of [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D were separated by TLC and the <sup>14</sup>C signals on the TLC plates were quantified. Representative TLC plates are shown in (A); quantitative values in (B) are the mean ±SE of three independent experiments. Different letters within bars denote significant differences (P<0.05) between means (the data for wild radish, wheat, and bean were analysed separately). From: 2,4-D resistance in wild radish: reduced herbicide translocation via inhibition of cellular transport J Exp Bot. 2016;67(11):3223-3235. doi:10.1093/jxb/erw120 J Exp Bot | © The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology.This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Fig. 6. (A) Chemical hydrolysis of partitioned 2,4-D metabolites from wild radish (pooled biotypes), wheat, and bean. Organic fractions were hydrolysed with base (OB) or acid (OA), as were the aqueous fractions (AB and AA, respectively), and all were re-partitioned following hydrolysis (top panel, final organic phase; bottom panel, final aqueous phase). (B) Enzymatic hydrolysis of 2,4-D metabolites. Partitioned extracts from [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D-treated wild radish (pooled biotypes; organic and aqueous phases) and wheat and bean (aqueous phase only) plants were incubated in the absence (–) or presence (+) of β-glucosidase and then re-partitioned into organic and aqueous phases. Letters above lanes denote the phase of the original and post-hydrolysis fractions (i.e. O-O is the post-hydrolysis organic phase of the original organic fraction, A-O is the post-hydrolysis organic phase of the original aqueous fraction, and A-A is the post-hydrolysis aqueous phase of the original aqueous fraction). Representative TLC plates from three independent experiments are shown. From: 2,4-D resistance in wild radish: reduced herbicide translocation via inhibition of cellular transport J Exp Bot. 2016;67(11):3223-3235. doi:10.1093/jxb/erw120 J Exp Bot | © The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology.This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Fig. 5. Comparison of [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D metabolism in wild radish (pooled biotypes), wheat, and bean. (A) Representative HPLC chromatograms of extracts from [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D-treated plants. Radioactivity was detected in the column eluent with a β-RAM detector. (B) Liquid–liquid partitioning of 2,4-D metabolites. Acidified extracts of [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D-treated plants were partitioned against diethyl ether to obtain the organic (Org) phase and then against 1-butanol to obtain the aqueous (Aq) phase, which were run on TLC plates alongside the total extract (Tot). Wild radish metabolites 1, 2, and 3 are indicated in (A) and (B). Representative HPLC chromatograms and TLC plates from three independent experiments are shown, except that wild radish metabolite 1 was often not detectable on HPLC. From: 2,4-D resistance in wild radish: reduced herbicide translocation via inhibition of cellular transport J Exp Bot. 2016;67(11):3223-3235. doi:10.1093/jxb/erw120 J Exp Bot | © The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology.This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Fig. 4. Metabolism of 2,4-D in wild radish plants Fig. 4. Metabolism of 2,4-D in wild radish plants. Extracts from [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D-treated plants were analysed by TLC, alongside a [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D standard. (A) Representative TLC separation of extracts from the susceptible (S) and resistant (R1 and R2) biotypes, harvested 96h after application of [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D to leaves of intact plants. (B) Quantification of <sup>14</sup>C signals from parent [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D and its metabolites. Values are means ±SE of four independent experiments; different letters within bars denote significant differences (P<0.05) between means. From: 2,4-D resistance in wild radish: reduced herbicide translocation via inhibition of cellular transport J Exp Bot. 2016;67(11):3223-3235. doi:10.1093/jxb/erw120 J Exp Bot | © The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology.This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Fig. 3. Time-course of [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D uptake and efflux in wild radish leaf discs from the susceptible (S) and resistant (R1 and R2) plants. (A) Abraded discs were floated on buffer containing [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D, and tissue <sup>14</sup>C accumulation was measured over 2–180min. (B) Other discs were loaded with [<sup>14</sup>C]2,4-D or Neutral Red for 3h, then washed and transferred to unlabelled buffer to monitor <sup>14</sup>C and Neutral Red efflux over 2min to 24h. The <sup>14</sup>C remaining in the discs at the end of either the influx or efflux phase, as appropriate, was measured by liquid scintillation counting and expressed as a percentage of <sup>14</sup>C applied (influx) or of the total <sup>14</sup>C taken up by the discs (efflux). Values are means ±SE (n=6; three discs per replicate). The Neutral Red data were obtained from an experiment using discs pooled from all three biotypes (n=3; nine discs per replicate). From: 2,4-D resistance in wild radish: reduced herbicide translocation via inhibition of cellular transport J Exp Bot. 2016;67(11):3223-3235. doi:10.1093/jxb/erw120 J Exp Bot | © The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology.This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.