Unit 7: Social Psychology Thomas Parsons West Auburn High School

Social Psychology social psychology - the study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people social cognitions social influences social relations

Social Cognition How do people select, interpret, remember, and use social information? Person Perception physical attractiveness stereotype – a generalization about a group’s characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to another natural = cognitive processing limitations “Beautiful is good” stereotype self-fulfilling prophecy – expectations cause individuals to act in ways that serve to make the expectations come true teacher expectations of “late bloomers”  expectations met composite faces, symmetry, and youthfulness first impressions 100 milliseconds  form first impression attribution – the process by which we come to understand the cause of others’ behavior and form an impression of them as individuals

Social Cognition: Attribution Theory attributions - explanations for why people behave the way they do attribution theory - attempt to discover underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior internal/external causes internal: traits and abilities external: social pressure, aspects of situation stable/unstable causes hostile or bad mood? controllable/uncontrollable causes should we hold it against you?

Social Cognition: Attribution attribution errors actor – person who produces the behavior observer – person who offers a causal explanation for actor’s behavior observers often explain actors’ behaviors incorrectly fundamental attribution error overestimate the importance of internal traits underestimate the importance of external causes actors often explain own behavior in terms of external causes

Social Cognition heuristics - cognitive shortcuts that speed decision making stereotypes = type of heuristic false consensus effect overestimating the degree to which everyone else thinks or acts the way we do use our outlook to predict that of others

The Self as a Social Object self-esteem – the degree to which we have positive or negative feelings about ourselves positive illusions – views of ourselves that are not necessarily rooted in reality self-serving bias – tendency to take credit for success and deny responsibility for failure internal attributions external attributions self-objectification – tendency to see oneself primarily as an object in the eyes of others

Social Cognition: The Self as Object stereotype threat - a self-fulfilling fear about being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype about our group living “down” to expectations African American males = work academically by checking box White males = worse at sports when reminded Asian women = better at math by checking box “Asian” box, worse by checking “female” box social comparison - process by which we evaluate our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and abilities in relation to other people social comparison theory – when no objective means are available to evaluate our opinions and abilities, we compare ourselves with others

Attitudes attitudes - beliefs about people, places, and ideas Can attitudes predict behavior? when attitudes are strong when attitudes are rehearsed when person has vested interest Can behavior predict attitudes? cognitive dissonance – an individuals psychological discomfort (dissonance) caused by two inconsistent thoughts uneasy when behavior ≠beliefs effort justification – type of dissonance reduction, means rationalizing the amount of effort we put into something low money hazing self perception theory – Daryl Bem’s (1967) theory on how behaviors influence attitudes, stating that individuals make inferences about their attitudes by perceiving their behavior I do something; therefore, I must like it.

Self-Perception Theory self-perception theory - individuals make inferences about their own attitudes by perceiving their own behavior, especially if their attitudes are unclear cognitive dissonance and self-perception theory  explain the connection between attitudes and behavior

Prosocial Behavior altruism (prosocial behavior) - an unselfish interest in helping someone else random acts of kindness debate: is it possible to be completely altruistic? Ayn Rand: opposed to altruism… why? egoism – giving to another person to ensure reciprocity; to gain self-esteem; to present one-self as powerful, competent, or caring; or to avoid censure from ones self and others for failing to live up to society’s expectations reciprocity

Prosocial Behavior explanations of altruism evolutionary – promoting survival of family’s genes research: humans not necessarily self-centered animals: demonstrate altruism psychological factors mood happy people = more helpful feelings of elevation (self-positivity) empathy – a person’s feelings of oneness with the emotional state of another sociocultural factors market economies – more prosocial behavior (trust = requirement) investment in established religion – emphasis on golden rule gender women: more helpful in nurturing situations men: more helpful in dangerous situations and when feel competent to help

Prosocial Behavior The Bystander Effect Media Influence Darley and Latané (1968) individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present then when the observer is alone diffusion of responsibility Media Influence listening to music with prosocial lyrics  increases kindness TV shows with positive content  increase prosocial behavior Lemmings video game  prosocial behavior

Aggression aggression – social behavior whose objective is to harm someone, either physically or verbally biological influences evolutionary views – more likely to survive genetic basis breeding docile animals and vicious animals physical aggression – more linked to genes social aggression – more linked to environmental neurobiological factors limbic system - active frontal lobes of brain – smaller / less functioning low levels of serotonin high levels of testosterone results = less consistent with humans than animals operational definitions of aggression  external validity criticism

Aggression psychological influences aversive circumstances  triggers aggression frustration – the blocking of an individual’s attempts to reach a goal  triggers aggression frustration-aggression hypothesis – frustration always leads to aggression weather, physical pain, crowding  triggers aggression cognitive determinants priming (seeing a weapon  prime hostile thoughts) perception of unfairness  triggers aggression observational learning Bobo doll study, Bandura, Ch. 6 violence on TV violence at home

Aggression media violence television violent video games increases aggression changes attitudes towards violence violence in home = more significant violent video games “rational though is suspended and highly arousing aggressive scripts are increasingly likely to be learned” CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH: more aggressive less sensitive to real-life violence more likely to engage in delinquent acts lower grades

Aggression reducing aggression decrease rewards lessen exposure encourage empathy monitor adolescents’ activity

Social Influence: Conformity conformity – a change in a person’s behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard can lead to enhanced cooperation among group members Asch’s Experiment (1951) factors that contribute to conformity informational social influence – the influence other people have on us because we want to be right normative social influence – the influence others have on us because we want them to like us volunteer participant conformed to incorrect answers 35% of time demonstrates power of conformity (breaking social norms) cognitive neuroscience fMRI images - when women found others disagreed, they responded as mistakes

Social Influence: Obedience obedience – behavior the complies with the explicit demands of the individual in authority obedient: authority figure demands  we do Stanley Milgram’s Experiments (1965, 1974) factors that contribute to disobedience disobedient models authority figure not legitimate or not close by victim made to seem more human

Group Influence Deindividuation Social Contagion Group Performance erosion of personal identity and responsibility anonymity example: KKK group, darkness, wearing white Social Contagion imitative behavior spread of behavior, emotions, and ideas examples: social fads, the popularity of dog breeds, the spread of unhealthy behaviors (smoking and drinking in adolescents), symptoms of eating disorders among young women observations: misbehaviors in school (talking, packing up early, etc.) Group Performance social facilitation: arousal with well-learned tasks social loafing: reduced accountability

Group Decision Making: Groupthink group harmony valued over “right” or “correct” impaired decision making and avoidance of realistic appraisal symptoms of groupthink overestimating the power and morality of one’s group close-mindedness lack of willingness to hear all sides of an argument pressure for uniformity  “get with the program” dissent meets with very strong disapproval avoiding groupthink avoid isolation allow the airing of all sides of an argument have an impartial leader include outside experts in the debate encourage group members who are strongly identified with the group to speak out in defense

Group Decision Making: Majority-Minority Influence majority: normative and informational pressure informational – greater opportunity to share normative – set group norms  those who do not go along may be ignored or given the boot minority: informational pressure cannot win with normative pressure must use informational pressure consistency and confidence = key must win over majority members

Prejudice an unjustified negative attitude toward a group and its members explicit versus implicit racism explicit racism – a persons conscious and openly shared attitude, which might be measured using a questionnaire implicit racism – attitudes that exist on a deeper, hidden level… must be measure with a method that does not require awareness Implicit Associations Test (IAT) – a computerized survey that assesses the ease with which a person can associate a Black or White person with good things THE DOLL TEST: VIDEO!! If you find it—the original vide, I will drop the lowest grade from every person in your class period for the fourth quarter AND I will buy your class donuts and coffee from the place of your choice explanations for prejudice competition between groups cultural learning motivation to enhance self-esteem limitations in cognitive processes

Prejudice “ethnic cleansing” i.e. Jews during WWII U.S. racial prejudice Jim Crow Segregation Laws Immigration Restrictions (Chinese Exclusion Act) Are you racist? 88% of Americans say no Yet, racial tension is a key topic in the media.

Stereotyping and Prejudice stereotype - a generalization about a group discrimination - unjustified negative or harmful action Civil Rights Act of 1964 (revised 1991) unlawful to deny someone employment on the basis of gender or ethnicity

Stereotyping and Prejudice How can relationships between ethnic groups be improved? contact does not lead to tolerance / warm relations Gordon Allport (1954) think that they are equal status feel that an authority figure sanctions the positive relationships believe that friendship might emerge from the interaction engage in cooperative tasks in which everyone has to contribute

Stereotyping and Prejudice Improving Interethnic Relations Contact Only is Not Effective Works best if groups: think they are of equal status feel an authority figure approves positive relations anticipate emergent friendship engage in cooperative tasks

Close Relationships Attraction proximity (physical closeness) – strong predictor of attraction mere exposure effect – the phenomenon that the more we encounter someone or something (a person, a word, and image), the more probable it is that we will start liking the person or thing even if we do not realize we have seen it before promise of acquaintanceship we like those who like us similar attitudes, behavior patterns, taste in clothes, intelligence, personality other friends, values, lifestyle, physical attractiveness similarity consensual validation – our own attitudes and behavior are supported when someone else’s attitudes and behavior are similar to ours and that behavior validate ours tend to shy away from the unknown

Close Relationships: Love Romantic Love passionate love (romantic love) – love with strong components of sexuality and infatuation, often dominant in the early part of a love relationship “in-love” sexuality and infatuation Affectionate Love companionate love (affectionate love) – love that occurs when individuals desire to have another person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person deep caring affection passion gives way to affection

Close Relationships: Love Social Exchange Theory fair exchange of “goods” minimize costs, maximize benefits equity – a feeling on the part of the individuals in the relationship that each is doing his or her fair share most important predictor of relationship success fades over time in a relationship (becomes distasteful) Investment Model factors in stability of relationship – predicts satisfaction and stability commitment to partner – predicts willingness to sacrifice investment in relationship – brings out the best in each other lack of attractive alternatives

Social Psychology and Health and Wellness Social Ties and Health isolation and mortality loneliness linked with impaired physical health social support and coping Fighting Loneliness join activities with others diverse social network  live longer narrow social network  live shorter act pleasant get help