ELEC4011 Ethics & Electrical Engineering Practice Hugh Outhred Lecture 2: Moral reasoning I (Chapter 2, Martin & Schinzinger, ‘Ethics in Engineering) ELEC4011 Ethics & Electrical Engineering Practice Hugh Outhred

The nature of moral inquiry Some applications of ethics: Understanding moral values, resolving moral issues & justifying moral judgements Exploring questions that involve moral issues Developing a system of moral values or code of ethics Defining ‘moral behaviour’ or ‘right conduct’: What ought to be done in a particular situation What is right or wrong in how a situation was handled What is good or bad about people, policies or beliefs ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

The nature of moral inquiry Types of inquiry: Normative:- to identify moral values Conceptual:- to clarify concepts or ideas Factual:- to explore specific situations or problems Types of moral judgement: Actions:- morally right or wrong People:- morally responsible or irresponsible Objective:- consistency in reasoning & decisions ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

Moral problems in engineering Typical situations involve a moral dilemma: Interests of an employer versus the public interest, e.g: Unsafe products or built-in obsolescence Extravagant claims of product performance Interests of one community versus another, e.g: A power station that causes local or global pollution The impact of war on civilian populations Pertinent moral questions: What is the extent of an engineer’s responsibility? When should one not obey orders of superiors? ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

Four approaches to moral reasoning Virtue ethics: Virtues & vices (good & evil behaviour & character) Utilitarianism: Actions that give the most good for the most people Duty ethics: Actions based on duties that respect persons Rights ethics: Actions that respect inalienable human rights: Some philosophers extend the scope to include animals ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

Virtue ethics & professionalism Cardinal principles of the IEAust code of ethics: To respect the inherent dignity of the individual To act on the basis of a well-informed conscience To act in the interests of the community: These principles are duties that express virtues: Virtuous ways to interact with others Desirable features of character Equity is a core value ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

Conceptual basis for virtue ethics Aristotle’s definitions of virtues (~350 BC): Habits that enable us to engage effectively in rational activities: Cardinal virtues:- wisdom, courage, temperance, justice The golden mean between too much & too little: Cowardice - Courage - Rashness Macintyre’s definition of virtues (20th century): Social practices that achieve public good, e.g: Professional responsibility in engineering Virtues are particularly valuable for group activity ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

Virtues & professional responsibility Self-direction virtues: Moral autonomy & good judgement Self-knowledge & self-respect Commitment & integrity Public-spirited virtues: Non-malfience do no harm Beneficence prevent or remove harm Generosity beyond normal expectations Team-work virtues: Collegiality Respect for legitimate authority Communication skills Proficiency virtues: Mastery of technical skills Diligence Creativity Accountability virtues: Act responsibly Admit mistakes & accept an appropriate share of blame ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

Issues in applying virtue ethics Virtues may contradict each other, e.g: Truthfulness & tact Loyalty to employer vs responsibility to the public Virtues provide general not specific advice: Most useful in establishing a general code of conduct Different societies rank virtues differently, e.g: Collegiality versus self-reliance Judgement is required in practical application: May have to rank virtues to resolve a moral dilemma ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I Utilitarianism Mill:- Act utilitarianism (19th century): Act to maximise happiness for all concerned (intellectual) happiness is the only intrinsic good Focus on individual acts rather than general rules Rules (eg. don’t deceive) can be broken to achieve greater good in a particular case Brandt:- Rule utilitarianism (20th century): Moral codes are primary even if they don’t always produce the greatest good The best moral code produces the greatest good Intrinsic goods include rational (informed) desires ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

Cost-benefit analysis 20th century attempt to quantify utilitarianism: Compare the costs & benefits associated with an act Choose actions for which benefits exceed costs Issues in applying cost-benefit analysis: Requires quantification of costs & benefits: may not be easy, e.g: value of a human life Requires quantification of uncertainty & risk: e.g: risk of cancer due to exposure to electromagnetic fields Distribution of costs & benefits may differ greatly: Equity issues, e.g: choosing the site for a new airport ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

Issues in applying utilitarianism Act-utilitarianism biased towards self-interest: The decision maker should be impartial Rule-utilitarianism supports codes of ethics: May give non-optimal outcomes in some cases: Where specific issues are of over-riding concern Cost-benefit analysis can be too narrow: Some costs & benefits difficult to quantify Distribution of costs & benefits may differ ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I Duty ethics Kant:- respect for persons (19th century): Based on duties (not consequences) that: Express respect for the autonomy of others Are universal principles Express unqualified commands (e.g. be honest) Rawl’s two principles (20th century): A person is entitled to the greatest liberty compatible with an equal amount for others Differences in social power & economic benefits are only justifiable when they benefit the disadvantaged ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

Basis for Rawl’s principles They would be agreed to by a rational person who: Had a general knowledge of the human condition but: Lacked all specific knowledge about him/herself Had concern for his or her long term interests Agreed to abide by the principles Issues in applying duty ethics Require compromise to resolve moral dilemmas: Prima facie duties:- may be waved in some situations Ranking, e.g. ‘protect life’ before ‘keep promises’ ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I Rights ethics Locke:- liberty rights (17th century): Life, liberty & the property generated by labour Used as a basis for libertarian ideology: Self-reliance & rejection of state intervention Melden:- liberty & welfare rights (20th century): Human rights in the context of communities Each individual must be provided with: A valued role in society, the capacity to show concern & to be accountable Welfare systems may be required to guarantee this ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

Issues in applying rights ethics Special rights can be derived from basic rights: The right to have promises kept The right to privacy: Implications for database & internet design An engineer’s right to warn of danger to the public The right to a meaningful occupation: Important implications for automation Require compromise to resolve moral dilemmas: Be careful to rank rights rather than people A right is only meaningful if it can be excercised ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

Relationship between ethics & laws A legal framework (set of laws): Developed by a State with authority to enforce Penalty-based:- punishment for illegal behaviour Ethics: A code for personal (or group) behaviour: Incentive-based:- personal & group esteem Laws lag behind social & technical change, e.g: Genetic engineering, rules for use of the internet Ethics matter for engineers:- they intend to innovate ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I

ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I Summary Engineering innovation changes the way we live: moral dilemmas can easily arise: The interests of an employer may conflict with the public interest Moral reasoning is concerned with distinguishing right from wrong The four main approaches to moral reasoning all provide useful insights on ethical behaviour: Virtue ethics, utilitarianism, duty ethics & rights ethics ELEC4011 - Lecture 2: Moral Reasoning I