Motivation and Emotion CH. 8

The Subjective Experience of Emotion Emotion researchers agree that there are a limited number of basic emotions, that all humans experience These emotions are thought to be biologically determined, the product of evolution

There are 3 characteristics commonly associated with motivation: Activation Persistence Intensity

Activation Activation is demonstrated by the initiation or production of behavior Ex: starting a diet or preparing for a 5K

Persistence Persistence is demonstrated by continued efforts or the determination to accomplish the goal, often in the face of obstacles Ex: overcoming extreme heat or an injury in preparation for the 5K

Intensity Intensity is seen as the greater vigor of responding that usually accompanies motivated behavior Ex: preparing with greater intensity, practicing harder and harder in preparation for a 5K

Motivation is closely tied to emotional processes and vice versa We are motivated to experience a particular emotion, such as feeling victorious The experience of different emotions can motivate us to take action (ex: avoiding dissatisfaction)

Motivational Concepts and Theories Instinct Theories In the late 1800’s psychology embraced instinct theories to explain motivation According to instinct theories, people are motivated to engage in certain behaviors because of instinctual behavior patterns

Just as animals display action patterns such as migration or mating rituals, humans were also thought to be motivated by instinctual or inborn behavior patterns Inspired by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, early psychologists like William James created lists of human instincts

Drive Theories Beginning in the 1920’s, instinct theories were replaced by drive theories Drive theories stated that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs, such as thirst or hunger

Drive theorists, including Robert S. Woodworth and Clark L Drive theorists, including Robert S. Woodworth and Clark L. Hull believed that drives are triggered by the internal mechanisms of homeostasis The human body automatically tries to maintain a steady state, which is what homeostasis means

According to drive theorists, when an internal imbalance is detected by homeostatic mechanisms, a drive to restore balance is produced Ex: after you have not eaten anything for several hours, this unmet biological need creates a drive state – hunger – that motivates your behavior

Incentive Motivation Building on the drive theories, incentive theories emerged in the 1940’s and 1950’s Incentive theories proposed that behavior is motivated by the “pull” of external goals, such as rewards, money, or recognition

Incentive theories drew heavily from well- established learning principles, such as reinforcement, and the work of influential learning theorists such as Pavlov, Watson, Skinner and Tolman Tolman stressed the importance of cognitive factors in learning and motivation, especially the expectation that a particular behavior will lead to a particular goal

Arousal Theory Arousal Theory is based on the observation that people find both very high levels of arousal and very low levels of arousal unpleasant When arousal is too low, we experience boredom and become motivated to increase arousal by seeking out stimulating experiences

When arousal is too high, we seek to reduce arousal in a less stimulating environment Thus, people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, one that is neither too high or too low

Humanistic Theory In the late 1950’s, humanistic theories of motivation were introduced by psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow Humanistic theories emphasized psychological and cognitive components in human emotion

According to the humanistic perspective, people are motivated to realize their highest personal potential Humanistic psychologists acknowledged that the motivation to achieve personal potential was inborn to a degree, however they believed that the environment was also an important factor (people need a positive and supportive environment to reach their full potential)

Psychological Needs as Motivators Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow believed that people are innately motivated to satisfy a progression of needs, beginning with the most basic physiological needs Once the needs at a particular level are satisfied, the individual is motivated to satisfy the needs at the next level, steadily progressing upward

The ultimate goal is self-actualization, the realization of personal potential

Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory To realize optimal psychological functioning and growth throughout the lifespan, Ryan and Deci believe that three innate and universal psychological needs must be met :

Autonomy: the need to determine, control, and organize one’s own behavior and goals so that they are in harmony with one’s own interests and values Competence: the need to effectively learn and master appropriately challenging tasks Relatedness: the need to feel attached to others and experience a sense of belongingness, security and intimacy

How does a person satisfy the needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness? In a supportive environment, an individual will pursue interests, goals and relationships that satisfy these psychological needs In turn this enhances the person’s psychological growth and intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic Motivation is the desire to engage in tasks that the person finds inherently satisfying ,enjoyable, or challenging Extrinsic Motivation consists of external influences on behavior, such as rewards, social evaluations, rules and responsibilities

According to Ryan and Deci, the person who has satisfied the needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness internalizes and integrates different external motivators as part of his/her identity The person incorporates societal expectations, rules, and regulations as values or rules that he or she personally endorses

Competence and Achievement Motivation Competence Motivation occurs when you strive to use your cognitive, social and behavioral skills to be capable and exercise control in a situation A step beyond competence motivation is Achievement Motivation – the drive to excel, succeed or outperform others at some task

In the 1930’s, Henry Murray identified 20 fundamental human needs or motives, including achievement motivation Murray also developed a test to measure human motives, called the Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)

The TAT consists of a series of ambiguous pictures The TAT consists of a series of ambiguous pictures. The person being tested is asked to make up a story about each picture The story is then coded for different motivational themes, including achievement

The Subjective Experience of Emotion Emotion researchers agree that there are a limited number of basic emotions, that all humans experience These emotions are thought to be biologically determined, the product of evolution

The Neuroscience of Emotion When you are threatened, the sympathetic nervous system triggers the fight or flight response, a rapidly occurring series of automatic physical reactions Breathing and heart rate accelerate, blood pressure rises, you perspire, your mouth goes dry, pupils dilate, digestion stops

Sympathetic nervous system is also activated by intense emotions such as excitement, love or joy Example: riding a roller coaster excited the SNS There are different patterns of physiological arousal for different emotions

Ex: fear, anger and sadness are all associated with increased heart rate Research conducted by Levenson. He believed that these differing patterns of SNS activation are universal, reflecting biological responses to the basic emotions

The Expression of Emotion The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (written by Charles Darwin) He said that human emotional expressions are innate and culturally universal Humans exhibit the greatest range of facial expressions

Psychologist Paul Ekman estimates that the human face is capable of creating more than 7,000 different expressions He found that facial expressions for the basic emotions are probably innate and are hard-wired in the brain Also found that facial expressions are universal across different cultures

Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory of Emotion Based on theories from William James and Carl Lange States that emotion follows this sequence: 1. we perceive a stimulus, 2. physiological and behavioral changes occur, 3. we experience a particular emotion