THE NATURE OF ENQUIRY: SETTING THE FIELD © LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE MANION AND KEITH MORRISON

STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER The search for truth Two conceptions of social reality Positivism The assumptions, nature and tools of science The scientific method Criticisms of positivism and the scientific method Post-positivism Naturalistic approaches Normative and interpretive paradigms Phenomenology, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism, constructionism Criticisms of naturalistic and interpretive approaches Post-positivism, postmodernism and post-structuralism Complexity theory

PARADIGMS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH Positivist Interpretive Mixed methods Post-positivist Post-structuralist Post-modernist Complexity theory

Quantification, large scale POSITIVISM (MACRO) Generalization Natural science Nomothetic laws Objectivity Causality Prediction Control, manipulation Quantification, large scale

POSITIVIST DESIGN IDENTIFY TOPIC REVIEW PREVIOUS LITERATURE LOOK FOR ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS FORMULATE HYPOTHESIS DESIGN RESEARCH START PROCESS AGAIN COLLECT DATA NO ANALYSE DATA REPORT FINDINGS YES

POSITIVIST METHODS Experiments Surveys Tests

POST-POSITIVISM Our knowledge of the world is not absolute but partial, conjectural, falsifiable, challengeable, provisional, probabilistic and changing. There is no absolute truth, but probabilistic knowledge only. No once-and-for-all foundational knowledge and grand narratives of a singular objective reality, discoverable through empiricism, positivism, behaviourism and rationalism. Tentative speculation in which multiple perspectives, claims and warrants are brought forward by the researcher. No theory-free observations; different theories can support specific observations/facts. Social facts, ways of thinking and observing, are social constructions rather than objectively and universally true. The values, biographies, perceptions, theories, environment and existing knowledge of researchers influence what is being observed. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

POST-POSITIVISM Facts and observations are theory-laden and value-laden. The separation of fact and value in positivism is unsustainable. Facts and theories are fallible. There exists an objective reality, but there is a pluralist view of multiple, coexisting realities rather than a single reality. The scientific method holds, but strong theories are contingent on their ability to withstand ‘severe tests’ of their falsifiability. Discoveries are subject to future falsification in the light of new evidence. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

INTERPRETIVE PARADIGM Naturalistic Idiographic, non-generalizable Understand and interpret Fluidity, change Multiple perspectives Specific, Context-bound Intentionality Subjectivity Agency

NATURALISTIC APPROACHES Ethnography Ethnomethodology Phenomenology Constructionism/ Constructivism Symbolic interactionism NATURALISTIC & INTERPRETIVE METHODS

INTERPRETIVE/ETHNOGRAPHIC IDENTIFY TOPIC LITERATURE REVIEW RESEARCH DESIGN DATA COLLECTION DATA ANALYSIS ELABORATION OF CONCEPTS/THEORIES REPORT OF FINDINGS

NATURALISTIC METHODS Ethnography Narratives Documents Interviews Observation Interviews THICK DESCRIPTION

NUMBERS, MEASUREMENT POSITIVIST APPROACHES SURVEY, EXPERIMENT ETHNOGRAPHY INTERVIEW NATURALISTIC APPROACHES OBSERVATION CASE STUDY ACTION RESEARCH

POST-POSITIVISM, POSTMODERNISM, POST-STRUCTURALISM Multiple realities Phenomenology Multiple meanings Contradictory discourses Discourses Interpretive Agency and individuality No grand narratives Difference and diversity Context and temporality Relativist No theory-free observation © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

COMPLEXITY THEORY Open systems Holism Emergence Non-linear systems Connected-ness Emergent order Feedback, communic-ation Self-organization Complex adaptive systems Relationships Tipping points Diversity in dynamical systems © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors