Philosophy in the Age of Reason

Revolution Sparks Enlightenment Scientific success convinced educated Europeans of the power of human reason Natural Law – rules discoverable by reason Why not use natural law to better understand social, economic and political problems? Using methods of new science reformers set out to study human behavior and solve problems of society

Hobbes and Locke: Conflicting Views Hobbes believes.. Locke believes… in powerful government That people are greedy, cruel and selfish; Life would be miserable To escape they enter into a social contract which they agree to give up freedom for organized society In natural rights (life, liberty, property) People are reasonable, and moral People formed government to protect natural rights Government should be limited and accepted by all If government violated rights the people should overthrow it…

The Philosophes Hobbs and Locke, who witnessed the English Revolution, influence many Enlightenment thinkers… 1700s was a flowering of enlightenment thought… In France, many philosophes “philosophers” met to discuss ways to use reason to reform government, law and society…

The Philosophes: Rousseau The Social Contract – believed people were good but corrupted by society Believed government should have limited control and only governments that were freely elected could impose control Put faith in the “general will” – The good of the community as a whole should be placed above individual interests.

The Philosophes: Montesquieu Studied governments of Europe and criticized absolute monarchy 1748 – Spirit of the Laws discussed government throughout history Felt best way to protect liberty was to divide the functions of government and power into three branches – executive, legislative, judicial Each branch should serve as a check to the other two – “checks and balances”

The Philosophes: Voltaire “My trade is to say what I think” Used wit to target abuses of his day – corrupt officials, idle aristocrats Used writings to battle inequality, injustice, and superstition Deplored slave trade and religious prejudice Offended both French government and Catholic Church – imprisoned and exiled but continued to defend free speech. “I don’t agree with a word you say but I will defend to my death your right to say it”

The Philosophes: Beccaria On Crimes and Punishments Condemned torture and the death penalty Punishments should be in degree to the severity of the crime Treasons = worst because it harms the social contract Best way to prevent crimes were to enact clear and simple laws, reward virtue and improve education Law exists to preserve social contract and benefit society as a whole

The Philosophes: Adam Smith The Wealth of Nations argued that the free market should be allowed to regulate business activity Supply and demand create favorable balance of trade Supporter of laissez Faire – allowing business to operate with little or no government interference This kind of economic thinking replaced mercantilist policies of previous years because mercantilism required government regulation to achieve a favorable balance of trade

The Philosophes: Women Germaine de Stael in France, Catherine Macaulay & Mary Wollstonecraft in England argued women were being excluded from social contract itself Mary Wollstonecraft Accepted women should be good mothers Should not have to depend on husband to decide what was in her best interest Called for equal education of boys and girls so girls could participate in public life

The Philosophes: Diderot The Encyclopedia – 28 volume set of books To “change the general way of thinking” Explained topics on government, philosophy and religion Included articles from famous thinkers of the day Helped spread enlightenment ideas

New Ideas Challenge Society Educated people all over Europe read Diderot’s Encyclopedia and more and more believed reform was necessary Enlightenment ideas were discussed in salons, informal social gatherings where philosophes exchanged ideas Belief in divine right of kings, a strict class system, earthly suffering for heavenly reward now seemed unscientific and irrational Not everyone agreed – most government and church authorities felt it their duty to defend the old order To protect against attacks they waged censorship- restricted access to ideas and information; burned books, imprisoned writers To avoid censorship some writers disguised their ideas in works of fiction

Art & Literature Baroque Rococo Art & architecture in Greek/Roman style Huge, colorful, full of excitement Glorified battles and lives of saints Art moved away from religion Was light, elegant and charming Delicate shells and flowers Pastels used

Art & Literature Music Literature “Classical”, ballets, operas Johann Sebastian Bach George Fredric Handel – Water Music Franz Joseph Haydn Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Developed new forms and wider audience Middle class readers liked stories of their times told in straightforward prose - novels Daniel Defoe – Robinson Crusoe

Enlightened Despots Philosophes hoped to convince the ruling classes that reform was necessary. Some monarchs did accept Enlightenment ideas and used their power to bring about social change Frederick II of Prussia – reduce torture, granted freedom of press, simplified laws and established religious toleration Catherine the Great of Russia – abolished torture, established religious tolerance Joseph II of Austria (son of Maria Theresa) – religious toleration, ended censorship (allowed freedom of press) abolished serfdom