Chapter 6 Learning and Memory

What is Learning 4 Factors that forms the definition of learning: Learning is inferred from a change in behavior/performance; Learning results in an inferred change in memory; Learning is the result of experience; and Learning is relatively permanent

Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning - a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a reflexive response that was originally evoked by a different stimulus - Proposed by Ivan Pavlov

Termininologies Unconditioned Stimulus (US) A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur) Unconditioned Response (UR) An unlearned reaction/response to an uncontioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning Conditioned Stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response Conditioned Response (CR) A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning

Theories of Learning Operant Conditioning - learning in which voluntary (controllable) behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is punished - behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened). - Proposed B.F. Skinner

Types of Responses or Operants • Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated. • Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. • Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

Principles of Reinforcements Positive reinforcement Give an organism a pleasant stimulus when the operant response is made Negative reinforcement Take away an unpleasant stimulus when the operant response is made

Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement. There are many problems with using punishment, such as: - Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present. - Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems. - Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school. - Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do.

Theories of Learning Observational Learning - Also known as social learning theory - Occurs when an observer’s behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model - Proposed Albert Bandura

What is Intelligence? Intelligence capacity for goal-directed and adaptive behavior involves certain abilities like: profit from experience solve problems reason effectively achieve goals

Are There Multiple Intelligences? Social Intelligence the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully Emotional Intelligence ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions

Are There Multiple Intelligences? Savant Syndrome condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an amazing specific skill e.g. computation drawing

Gardner’s Types of Intelligence

Assessing Intelligence Aptitude Test a test designed to predict a person’s future performance aptitude is the capacity to learn Achievement Test a test designed to assess what a person has learned

The Dynamics of Intelligence Mental Retardation a condition of limited mental ability indicated by intelligence scores below 70 produces difficulty in adapting to the demands of life varies from mild to profound

The Dynamics of Intelligence Degrees of Mental Retardation Level Typical Intelligence Scores Percentage of the Retarded Adaptation to Demands of Life Mild 50-70 85% May learn academic skills up to sixth-grade level. Adults may, with assistance, achieve self-supporting social and vocational skills. Moderate 35-49 10 May progress to second-grade level. academically. Adults may contribute to their own support by labor in sheltered workshops. Severe 20-34 3-4 May learn to talk and perform simple work tasks under close supervision but are generally unable to profit from vocational training. Profound Below 20 1-2 Require constant aid and supervision.

The Dynamics of Intelligence Down syndrome retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in genetic make-up

MEMORY Memory is learning that has persisted over time; it is information that has been acquired, stored, and can be retrieved. To a psychologist, evidence that learning persists includes these three measures of retention, which we will explore later in the chapter: • recall—retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time. A fill-in-the-blank question tests your recall. • recognition—identifying items previously learned. A multiple-choice question tests your recognition. • relearning—learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time. When you study for a final exam or engage a language used in early childhood, you will relearn the material more easily than you did initially.

MEMORY encoding the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. storage the retention of encoded information over time. retrieval the process of getting information out of memory storage. sensory memory the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. short - term memory activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. long - term memory the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Information Processing System Environment Working Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory

amnesia Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties amnesia Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties. retrograde amnesia Amnesia in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event. An inability to retrieve information from one’s past. anterograde amnesia Amnesia in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury. An inability to form new memories.

Improving Memory Rehearse repeatedly. To master material, use distributed (spaced) practice. To learn a concept, give yourself many separate study sessions. New memories are weak; exercise them and they will strengthen. Make the material meaningful. You can build a network of retrieval cues by taking text and class notes in your own words. Apply the concepts to your own life. Form images. Understand and organize information. Relate the material to what you already know or have experienced. Restate concepts in your own words.

Improving Memory Activate retrieval cues. Mentally re - create the situation and the mood in which your original learning occurred. Jog your memory by allowing one thought to cue the next. Use mnemonic devices. Asso ciate items with peg words. Make up a story that incorporates vivid images of the items. Chunk information into acronyms. Create rhythmic rhymes (“i before e, except after c”). Minimize interference. Study before sleep. Do not schedule back - to - back study times for topics that are likely to interfere with each other, such as Spanish and French.

Improving Memory Sleep more. During sleep, the brain reorganizes and consolidates information for long-term memory. Sleep deprivation disrupts this process. Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you don’t yet know. Don’t be lulled into overconfidence by your ability to recognize information. Outline sections on a blank page. Define the terms and concepts listed at each chapter’s end before turning back to their definitions. Take practice tests.