The New Policies Reforms 清末新政 1901-1911 Lane J. Harris, Furman University

19th Century Reform Movements Tongzhi Restoration 同治中興, 1862-1874 Self-Strengthening Movement 自強運動, 1861-1895 Court Reforms, 1895-98 Hundred Days Reforms 戊戌變法, 1898

The Empress Dowager’s Conversion Boxer Rebellion, 1900 Allied Occupation of Beijing Aug. 1900-Sept. 1901 Dismemberment of China? Restoration of Guangxu? Cixi’s “Tour of Inspection” Aug. 1900-Jan. 1902 1st Reform Edict, 29 Jan. 1901 Removal of Heir Apparent Empress Dowager distributing food in Xi’an

The Calendar of the New Policies Military Reforms Educational Reforms Political Reforms Constitutional Reforms Legal Reforms Social Reforms Other Reforms Purposes: Creation of the modern state Centralization, standardization Foster civil society contact with “the people” 慈禧

Bureau of Government Affairs 督辦政務處 Est. April 1901 Reorganized in 1905 as 內閣會議政務處 Clearinghouse for Xinzheng reforms Initial Members: Prince of Qing 慶親王 Li Hongzhang 李鴻章 Ronglu 榮祿 Kungang 崑岡 Wang Wenshao 王文韶 Co-adjutors: Liu Kunyi 劉坤一 Zhang Zhidong 張之洞 奕劻 Yikuang, Prince of Qing Wang Wenshao

Military Reforms Yuan Shikai 袁世凱 Military Reforms, 1901-03 Leading military reform advocate Military Reforms, 1901-03 Military Training Abolition of military exams, 1901 Est. of Military Academies, 1901 Military Reorganization, 1903 Commission for Army Reorganization 練兵處 Central control of armies Ministry of War 陸軍部, 1906 National Army Plans, 1907 36 divisions, 450,000 soldiers Military school pyramid Uniform armaments Goals: Increase prestige of military, professionalization, centralization

The New Education Committee of Educational Affairs 學務處 Zhang Baixi 張百熙 Compromise Plan, 1901-1904 National School System Elementary, Middle, Colleges Confucian classics & Western knowledge Ministry of Education 學部, Jan. 1904 Zhang Baixi, Zhang Zhidong’s Plan Five-levels of school Chinese and Western learning Provincial Commissioners of Education Abolition of Civil Service Exams, 1905 Results (1910) 57,000 schools, 1.6 million students Study Abroad Students Goal: From elite recruitment to educating “citizens” 國民 Zhang Baixi

Shift in the Reform Movement The Crisis of 1905 Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05 Anti-American Boycott, 1905 Formation of Revolutionary Alliance The Japanese Model Rapid, effective modernization Imperial sovereignty with appearance of democracy Strong military The Japanese Filter Chinese students in Japan Japanese advisors/teachers in China “Translingual practice” Towards Constitutionalism & Public Administration

Reforms to the Official System 官制 Foreign Commission, 12/1905 出使各國考察政治大臣 Two commissions, tour nine countries Zaize 載澤, Duanfang 端方 Ad-hoc Royal Commission, 25 August 1906 Reforms public administration Reorganization of Ministries, Nov. 1906 Ministerial-style government Specialized functions One minister, two vice-ministers No Manchu-Han distinction Provincial Reorganization Three Eastern Provinces 東三省, April 1907 Daotai to Commissioners, July 1907 Goal: Creation of a ministerial government, streamline bureaucracy

“A Unity of Mind”: Late Qing Constitutional Reforms Office for the Investigation of Political Affairs 考察政治館, 1905 Bureau for the Investigation of the Principles of Constitutional Government 憲政編查館, 1906 Advocates constitution Constitutional Monarchy Embraced, 30 Sept. 1907 9-year plan adopted, 1908 Provincial Assemblies 諮議局, 1909 Opened October 1909 National Assembly 資政院, 1910 Opened October 1910 Goal: Retain imperial sovereignty, allow “public” deliberation Prince Pulun 溥倫 President of National Assembly The National Assembly

Legal Reforms Leading Reformers, 1902-1911 Modern Police Force, 1902 Shen Jiaben 沈家本 Wu Tingfang 伍廷芳 Modern Police Force, 1902 Ministry of Police 巡警部, 10/1905 Became Ministry of Interior 民政部, 11/1906 Prison Reforms Judicial Reforms Elimination of “barbaric” punishments, 1905 Lingchi 凌遲 (slow death by slicing) Judicial torture Ministry of Justice 法部, 1906 System of Courts, 1907 Supreme Court of Justice 大理院 Judicial Commissioner, 1907 New Codes Commercial, Criminal (draft), plentora of new laws (bankruptcy, press, associations, etc.) Goal: To abolish extraterritoriality Shen Jiaben

Social Reforms Elimination of Manchu-Han distinctions Intermarriage, 1902 Anti-footbinding, 1902 Bannermen, 1907 Transition to professions, agriculture (keep stipends) Queue-cutting optional, Dec. 1911 Abolition of “slavery” Servants and concubines Opium Prohibitions

Financial Reforms Financial Reforms Currency Reforms “Abolition” of lijin, 1902 Ministry of Finance 度支部, 1906 Imperial budget, 1909 Currency Reforms Gold v. Silver Reform efforts, 1902, 1905, 1908 Establishment of Central Mint, 1903 Foreign loans, 1910-

The Prince Regent’s Reforms Zaifeng 載灃 As regent, 14 Nov. 1908—6 Dec. 1911 25 years old, indecisive Banner stipends continue, 1908- Provincial Assemblies, 1909 Agitation for Parliament National Assembly, 1910 Zaifeng grants Cabinet in 1911, Parliament in 1913 Cabinet, May 1911 Imperial Kinsmen’s Cabinet皇族内阁 Prime Minister Yikuang Abolition of Grand Secretariat, Grand Council, Office of Government Affairs State takeover of railways Zaifeng Imperial Kinsmen’s Cabinet

Conclusion The New Policies Reforms gave birth to the modern, centralizing state. Endorsed constitutional and ministerial-style government, two features of all twentieth-century Chinese states. Established many of the standard goals and methods embraced during China’s twentieth-century revolutions (i.e. “citizen education,” “rule of law,” top-down revolutions). Probably as significant as New Culture/May Fourth Movements in “breaking” with the past. Incidently, created the social and political groups who would overthrow the Qing in 1911.