the republican SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

The Senate Council of ‘elders’ 300 members at beginning of period, 900 by end At first appointed by kings; Sulla made quaestorship entry requirement Met in the ‘curia’ (senate house) in the forum Summoned by the consuls, or later by tribunes as well Consul(s) presided over meeting No political parties; senators spoke as individuals Sessions held between dawn and sunset Wore white toga with broad purple stripe

The Senate; the procedure The chairman or another magistrate would deliver a ‘report’ (relatio) Each senator was the asked his opinion (sententia) according to rank (ex-consuls, ex-praetors etc. Patricians took preference over plebeians) After the debate, different opinions were put to the vote by a division (discessio). Some resolutions required a quorum. Any resolution (senatus consultum) could be vetoed by the tribunes. It had no legislative force, but was in fact normally binding. Records were kept by the quaestors in the aerarium (public treasury).

Functions of the senate Advised the magistrates in matters of domestic and foreign policy, finance and religion, and on their legislative proposals Could invalidate laws already voted by pointing out technical flaws in procedure Suggested nomination of a dictator Assigned the various duties to the magistrates Marked out the two provinces destined for the consuls In wartime, they influenced the choice and extension of commisions, fixed the number of levies and criticized the conduct of the war.

Functions of the Senate (continued) Supervised revenue and expenditure, and controlled the aerarium (public treasury) Regulated the coinage Practical decision of war, conclusion of peace treaties and conduct of foreign policy usually in the hands of the senate (formal declaration of war and ratification of treaties belonged to Comitia) Received ambassadors and appointed senators to help magistrates in concluding treaties and settling organisation of conquered territories. Overall control of religious life of the state.

Consul Chief magistrates of Republic   Chief magistrates of Republic 2 elected each year : not get too powerful, keep an eye on each other Took over jobs of king, therefore: Head of State Chief Judge Chief General Elected by comitia centuriata; invested with power by comitia curiata Opened to plebeians in 367BC

Praetor   At first only one, then second added, then gradually increased to 16 by time of Caesar. Regulated legal procedure, appointed juries to try cases Elected by comitia centuriata; invested with power by comitia curiata Opened to plebeians in 337BC

Quaestor Two elected annually by the comitia tributa Two main functions: preparation of evidence for public prosecutions management of state accounts Also in charge of state treasury; received and paid out all public money. A quaestor accompanied a general on campaign to manage all finances + one attached to each province. Therefore numbers had to grow. By the time of Caesar there were 40. Opened to plebeians 421BC

Aedile Plebeian aediles: Two elected annually by comitia tributa Only plebeians eligible Kept the plebiscita in the temple of Ceres Special charge of all buildings Assisted in judicial work

Curule aediles Two elected annually Patricians only Kept the senatus consulta in the temple of Saturn Superintended public games Looked after roads, public buildings, markets etc together with plebeian aediles 304BC both sets of aediles thrown open to either patricians or plebeians Two more added by Caesar in 44BC to superintend the corn dole

Tribune Full title = tribuni plebis (‘tribunes of the people’)   Full title = tribuni plebis (‘tribunes of the people’) Two elected annually by comitia tributa Only plebeians eligible Chief powers/rights: ius auxilium The right of protecting a citizen from the actions of a magistrate intercessio The right of putting a veto on intended acts of all other magistrates, including other tribunes presidency of plebeian assemblies right to put rogationes to plebeian assemblies which, if accepted became plebiscita right to coerce and punish plebeians

Powers confined to city limits Protected by religious sanction (sacrosanctus) Number gradually increased to 10 Could summon the senate, and, by 216BC, allowed to speak in it Lex Hortensia of 287BC made their plebiscita binding on all citizens

Censor Two elected by comitia centuriata every five years; held office for 18 months Chief duties: hold the lustrum of citizens prepare the list of citizens for the senate give out public contracts for collecting taxes etc manage finances of the republic Also inquired into ‘conduct’ (both public and private) of every citizen; could degrade a citizen from his tribe, remove senators from senate etc. First plebeian censor 351BC

Dictator Exceptional office, only for times of emergency Appointed by the consuls for 6 months only Superseded all existing magistrates and assemblies As soon as crisis solved, should resign Could not leave Italy Had no power over the treasury Appointed a magister equitum as his deputy

Pontifex Maximus Chief priest Head of state religion   Chief priest Head of state religion Presided over college of ‘pontifices’, responsible for regulation of the calendar & all important family ceremonies (eg adoption, betrothal etc) Head of whole state clergy, including the Vestal Virgins Very ‘political’ appointment

Proconsuls and Propraetors   Governors of the provinces from133BC As names imply, former magistrates Supreme military and judicial power in their province No power whatever in the city Remained in office until successor arrived (no set term of office)

The Legislative Assemblies Assemblies of people summoned in groups by a magistrate Voting was only allowed between sunrise and sunset, on days specially appointed in the calendar, when auspices had been taken Resolutions of the comitia had to be ratified by the senate There were four different assemblies in Rome: The ‘Comitia Curiata’ The ‘Comitia Centuriata’ The ‘Concilium Plebis’ The Comitia Tributa’

The ‘Comitia Curiata’ Oldest assembly, dating back to the kings   Oldest assembly, dating back to the kings Only patricians Formally confirmed appointment of magistrates

The ‘Comitia Centuriata’ Assembly of the whole people by ‘centuries’ Originally for gathering the Roman army Met on the Campus Martius, an open space originally outside the city Interval of 24 days after meeting called, to allow for preliminary discussion of proposals (contio) Passed laws (which needed to be ratified by the senate) Elected all magistrates Responsible for the declaration of war and peace Court of appeal against the sentence of a consul, and a criminal court in matters of offences against the state. Voting groups were unequal, and the patricians and richer citizens held most influence

The ‘Concilium Plebis’ At first an informal assembly of the people, based on tribes, and organised by the tribunes. Elected the tribunes and plebeian aediles Made resolutions (plebiscitia) which were regarded as binding only upon the plebeians. Enforced by tribunes. 339BC plebiscitia binding on whole community, subject to ratification of the senate 287BC plebiscitia no longer need senatorial approval. Sulla restored this, but restriction removed finally in 70BC.

The ‘Comitia Tributa’ Summoned by the consuls and praetors as well as tribunes Organised by tribes, in the same way as the Concilium Plebis Elected the quaestors and aediles. Gradually took over the election of tribunes and other minor officers as well. Could assemble either within or without the city, but no further that 1000 paces from it. Judicial duties only with regard to offences against ‘the majesty of the people’ Determined by lot which of tribes should vote first Announcing of result of votes called renuntiatio