Reading Fluency as an Emergent Dimension Jack S. Damico, Ph. D. Holly Damico, M.S. Ryan L. Nelson, Ph.D. Karen E. Lynch, Ph.D. Katie Abendroth, Ph.D. The University of Louisiana at Lafayette

FLUENCY “The ability to read a text quickly, accurately, and with proper expression” (NRP, 2000) “The ability to read expressively, meaningfully, with appropriate phrasing, and with appropriate speed” (Rasinski & Padak, 2001)

FLUENCY Parameters often cited for Fluency Speed (words per minute, reading rate) Accuracy (word recognition, decoding) Phrasing (words per phrase group, intonation, reading with punctuation) Smoothness (hesitations, false starts, repetitions) Pace (even rate, conversational, degree of labor)

Over the past decade there has been increasing attention paid to reading fluency as an emergent dimension of reading comprehension rather than a component skill of reading This has been asserted by a number of theorists (Perkins, Smith, Goodman, Flurkey) but the data for this assertion is lacking. Previously, (ASHA 2008) we provided three sets of preliminary data from LD students with reading difficulties in support of fluency as an emergent dimension.

Previous Data Provided INCREASE in Fluency has High correlation with familiar text (.81) High correlation with familiar content (.89) High correlation with high quality miscue production (.92) High correlation with effective retellings (.84) When fluency DECREASES during reading: 81% of next miscue is Low quality 4X the scan regressions within the next two sentences

Previous Data Provided There was a greater consistent increase in fluency after “weaving in meaning” rather than “non-meaningful” content. Meaning - 89% Non-meaningful - 21% These last data, however, were preliminary Only 80 video-taped instances were analyzed More data are needed to confirm this last finding

OBJECTIVE To provide more detailed data on the relationship between the re-assertion of meaning and fluency during authentic reading by struggling readers This study examines the extent to which struggling readers become more fluent after meaning is re-asserted (as defined by fluency loss) as opposed to other non-meaningful assertions. If fluency tends to increase once meaning is re-established versus a condition when the assertion is non-meaningful, then the argument is that the increase in fluency is an emergent dimension of increased meaning-making on the part of the struggling reader.

METHODOLOGY The overall research paradigm employed is a qualitative research paradigm that emphasizes data collection within the natural and authentic contexts in the field and the clinic. Specifically interactional analysis was employed to examine videotaped shared reading sessions with each individual. The flexibility of the research design enabled modification of the foci and methods employed if the data suggest other areas of research interest.

Participants Five struggling readers formally diagnosed with language and learning disabilities Ages range from 8-1 to 10-6 Each has had at least three years of classroom instruction from a phonics-based reading program in the public schools Each is able to read short passages from familiar trade publications commonly referred to as beginning “chapter books” Each was enrolled in a summer University Language and Literacy Project (using meaning-based approaches) to assist their reading proficiency

Data Collection Ten 30-minute shared reading sessions (two for each participant) were videotaped within a two week period in the 4th and 5th weeks of the ULL Summer Language and Literacy Project An interactional analysis was employed to examine each videotaped sessions identify each instance that met the targeted condition.

Targeted Condition While reading independently, a participant’s fluency is reduced by at least three points on the Rasinski 20 point fluency scale The student clinician inserts a comment within the next five words read (can be a designated meaningful comment or a neutral comment) The child continues reading for at least five words

Data Analysis An interactional analysis is employed as a variation of conversation analysis in that we operated within the constraints and limits of that tradition of inquiry The focus within the targeted condition , however, was two-fold: Each clinician insertion was identified as either meaning-based or neutral A determination was made whether the next five to ten words read exhibited an increase in fluency (as defined by an increase of at least three points on the 20-point modified Rasinski Fluency Scale) or not.

Meaningful insertions Neutral insertions Affirmation (e.g., “good”) Discourse device (e.g., “OK”) Negative (e.g., “no”) Instruction not meaningful to the text (e.g., “sound it out”) Clarification (e.g., “what”) Meaningful insertions Intermittent synopsis of what has been read Intermittent Summary Foreshadowing Provide some overt prediction Imagery or visualization A meta-literacy comment Restatement

RESULTS 347 total instances met the Targeted Condition 70.02% (243/347) of the instances exhibited insertions that were meaningful (as defined in this study) 29.97% (104/347) of the instances exhibited insertions that were non-meaningful (as defined in this study) 76.54% (186/243) of the meaningful insertions resulted in increased fluency (as defined in this study) 18.26% (19/104) the non-meaningful insertions resulted in increased fluency (as defined in this study)

Data for each Participant according to Targeted Instances and Percentages of Fluency Increase by Insertion Type Participants Targeted Instances Meaningful Insertions Increased Fluency Percentage Non- One 118 94 68.1% 24 29.2% Two 35 27 77.8% 8 12.5% Three 77 63 85.7% 14 28.6% Four 68 41 82.9% 11.1% Five 49 18 72.2% 31 12.9%

CONCLUSIONS Based on the significant increase in fluency as meaning is re-asserted, fluency appears to be best conceptualized as an epiphenomenal result of the comprehensibility derived from the process of reading. It may function as an indication of the degree of comprehension during reading. Fluency is an emergent product of the reader’s ongoing comprehension of the text.

Fluency as an Emergent Dimension Fluency Associated with overall proficiency (Comprehension) Lack of Fluency a significant factor among struggling readers A generally reliable predictor of reading comprehension in early grades A focus on meaningfulness is the best way to achieve fluency

Practical Implications Fluency should be viewed as an emergent phenomenon not as a component skill It has diagnostic value in discerning comprehension It has pedagogical value in employing an intervention at sites of fluency reduction Increases the efficiency and effectiveness of intervention efforts

OBSERVING ACTUAL READING Check for Change in Fluency For Beginning Struggling Readers Level of Continuous Phrasing Smoothness For Intermediate Struggling Readers Appropriate Intonation Reading with Punctuation Check for “Shadowing”

Literacy Pedagogy and Intervention Focus should be on authentic reading of meaningful texts for authentic purposes Focus on the change in fluency as an index of when to intervene during authentic reading

Literacy Pedagogy and Intervention When using documented strategies to increase fluency, recognize the force of meaningfulness Model Fluency Repeated Readings Practice with familiar Texts Poetry rereads Readers Theater Repertory Groups Paired Reading Fluency Development Lesson

Literacy Pedagogy and Intervention Recognize that meaning/comprehension is the crucial variable Keep this in mind with Materials Activities Motivations Techniques Beware the Pedagogical or Curricular Fallacy

Summary Fluency should be viewed as an Emergent Dimension There are specific Diagnostic and Pedagogical Implications Systematic Observation and Qualitative Research can provide some illumination on these matters