What does science communication mean to you? A comparison of expert and student responses Jacqueline Dohaney, E. Brogt, T.M. Wilson, & B. Kennedy

Premise Worked on a project (Ako Aotearoa NPF12-007; “Improving Science Communication Skills”) which aimed to build curricula which teaches science communication best practices. First steps: -> Establish ‘best practices’. -> Build curricula that teaches science communication. -> Design questionnaires which capture student and expert experiences and attitudes. We wanted to know how experts and students define science communication. Are they different? Helps us to effectively teach science communication by addressing misconceptions

What does science communication mean to you? “… the use of appropriate skills, media, activities and dialogue to produce one or more of the following personal responses to science: Awareness, Enjoyment, Interest, Opinion- forming, and Understanding” Burns et al. (2003, pp. 183) Burns et al (2003) Science Communication: A contemporary definition. Public Understanding of Science 12 (2): 183-202

Survey Participants STUDENTS (n=57) EXPERTS (n=51) Upper year undergraduates (300-level) and postgraduates (400-level; PGDip, MSc). New Zealand (42), and US students (Exchange; 15) Degree programmes: Hazards and disaster management, geology, environmental science, and engineering geology. Geologists, engineers, science communicators, interdisciplinary researchers & emergency managers. (early-, mid- and late-career; mean of 17 yrs). Employed at CRIs (12), academic institutions (26), govt agencies (10) and more. Range of communication experiences (professional, research, teaching, ad hoc, informal, etc.)

Methods Open-ended question (open text box, invited to write as much as desired) Hard copy and digital surveying (i.e., Qualtrics) Question occurred at the end of a questionnaire, which included a diverse range of questions including styles, strategies, formats and attitudes towards science communication. Analysis done with qualitative coding software (ATLAS.ti) Content analysis: transcribed info verbatim. Information sorted into unique items, then clustered by similar content (i.e., themes). Coded by one person (no inter-rater reliability completed) Some content was ignored: (Not worried about what they communicate but how they describe communication) Several aspects were explored: Frequencies, differences between groups, use of specific language, and relationships with the literature.

AUDIENCES (i.e., receivers of the communication) OUTCOMES ACTIONS (the action taken to communicate with a given audience) MECHANISMS (i.e., the ways and means of communication) AUDIENCES (i.e., receivers of the communication) OUTCOMES “It is how science and technical terms can be correctly communicated to particular audiences in ways that they can fully understand the concepts without being extremely confused or scared. It means using specific language and data converted to an easier form that is easier for certain audiences to understand” – student response correctly in ways using specific language and data an easier form communicated converted they can fully understand the concepts without being extremely confused or scared is easier certain audiences particular audiences

Students focused on these aspects…. Experts focused on these aspects…. Theme 1: Actions Most commonly mentioned by all participants were… Communication Actions Students focused on these aspects…. PERFORM TRANSFER Experts focused on these aspects…. EXCHANGE ENGAGE ENGAGE EXCHANGE COMMUNICATE COMMUNICATE Have an ABILITY TRANSFER TRANSFER TRANSLATE EXPLAIN PERFORM

Transmission vs. Dialogic Communication Theme 1: Actions Transmission vs. Dialogic Communication Communicating to… (Linear; One-way) Linear models of transfer of information from ‘sender’ to ‘receiver’ (transmission) or diffusion (disperse information widely, and let it soak in) (Burns et al 2003) Communicating with… (Dialogic; Two-way) Communication with the public is complex and socially-situated. It involves discussion, dialogue, and debate. “. . . the practice of producing and negotiating meanings, a practice which always takes place under specific social, cultural and political conditions.” (Schirato and Yell (1997) Communication and Cultural Literacy: An Introduction (Sydney: Allen & Unwin))

Communication Actions Theme 1: Actions Communication Actions More diverse terms used STUDENTS BOTH EXPERTS One-way Two-way Focused on performance

Mechanisms: the ways and means of communicating Theme 2: Mechanisms Mechanisms: the ways and means of communicating STRATEGIES &TOOLS Students – 60 mentions of mechanisms Experts – 40 mentions of mechanisms

Strategies: Information and it’s presentation should… Theme 2: Mechanisms Strategies: Information and it’s presentation should… (be) Effective Most commonly mentioned by all participants were… (be) Appropriate* (be) Understandable (be) Clear (be) Flexible to the situation Mechanisms ways and means of communicating

Tools: Information and it’s presentation should… Theme 2: Mechanisms Tools: Information and it’s presentation should… LANGUAGE FORMAT Mechanisms (use) Everyday language ways and means of communicating VISUALS & NUMBERS Most commonly mentioned by all participants were…

STUDENTS BOTH EXPERTS Strategies Tools Theme 2: Mechanisms ways and means of communicating STUDENTS BOTH EXPERTS Strategies Tools (be) Clear (be) Concise (be) Effective & Understandable Greater emphasis on Strategies Language More diverse response

Most commonly mentioned by all participants were… Theme 3: Audiences Audiences ‘the Public’ – groups within society with its own needs, interests, attitudes and levels of knowledge; customs, norms, and social interactions (Burns et al 2003) (the) Public(s) Audiences(s) People Most commonly mentioned by all participants were… Specialised audiences STUDENTS EXPERTS BOTH

(make info) Accessible Theme 4: Outcomes Outcomes “… to produce one of the following personal responses to science: Awareness, Enjoyment, Interest, Opinion-forming, and Understanding” Most commonly mentioned by all participants were… STUDENTS BOTH EXPERTS (make info) Accessible Decision-making; (making info) USEFUL Understanding Interest & New Science

Summary & Implications Transmision/linear styles are dominant; but it is less so for experts. Students focused on mechanisms (i.e., the mechanics of communicating). Experts used a more diverse range of descriptors for most categories (as expected…). Experts reported outcomes which focussed on decision-making while students focused on the accessibility of information. -> Science communication teaching must provide basics, but should also address the complexity and targeted/adaptability of communication (… moving towards a more sophisticated view) -> Practice with communicating in complex (i.e., real-life) scenarios should enable learners to build more sophisticated & flexible approaches.

Final Quote: “To me, 'science communication' includes sharing results and interpretations with other scientists in your field and with scientists who are not in your field, listening to the information needs of others, communicating interpretations (and data where needed) to stakeholders, effectively communicating interpretations to the public/media, and communicating uncertainties to everyone. It is the sharing of knowledge.” – Expert response

This research was supported by: Thank you Jacqueline Dohaney jdohaney@gmail.com This research was supported by:

More student examples: “Purposefully communicating a relevant section of our expertise in a relatable and trustworthy and digestable manner” “Science communication means taking the knowledge you have gained through research and passing it on to other groups to transfer the information. This communication has an aim to raise awareness and increase overall education with communities” “Communicating scientific ideas in a way that is relevant and understandable to the targeted audience. Must be accurate and easy to understand”