Why was Unification so unlikely? Italy in the early C19 Why was Unification so unlikely?

What was Italy like before Napoleon? Until 1796, Italy was divided into many states for historical reasons: Foreign control of land in Italy, eg. Spain in the South. ‘City states’ were the basis for wealth and government since the 15th century onwards. The Papacy (Pope) had always retained control over its own land.

Napoleonic occupation, 1796-1815 (1) In 1796, Napoleon invaded Italy (except Venetia which was Austrian). The result: Divided Italy into three: The Kingdom of Italy. The Kingdom of Naples. The rest was absorbed into the French Empire. Representative government was introduced along French lines with elected assemblies. The old states had been autocratic and conservative.

Napoleonic occupation, 1796-1815 (2) Italian laws were standardised with the French legal codes – the ‘Code Napoleon’. There was a shift of power from the upper classes to the middle classes. These caused both nationalism (pro-Italy and anti-France) and liberalism to grow. An early factor in the development of the Risorgimento (the movement to unite Italy). French revolutionary ideas persisted after the French left; LIBERTY, EGALITY, FRATERNITY

Napoleonic occupation, 1796-1815 (3) 1815, Napoleon is defeated at the Battle of Waterloo: The Congress of Vienna is set up, representing the conservative forces of Europe, and led by Metternich of Austria. The Congress of Vienna restores Italy to its pre-Napoleonic state. Reasons: To make it difficult for France to regain its former power. To stop nationalist and liberal movements growing by restoring autocracies.

LIBERAL RADICAL NATIONALIST REACTIONARY

Prince Metternich, 1820 “Union between the Monarchs is the basis of the policy which must now be followed to save society from total ruin...” “The first principle to be followed by monarchs, should be that of maintaining the stability of political institutions against the disorganised excitement which has taken possession of men's minds.”

Italy returned to its pre-Napoleonic state (1) The states of Italy from 1815 onwards, with much Austrian influence over most: Naples and Sicily (the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), the South of Italy: Ruled by Ferdinand I, a Spanish Bourbon. The area was poverty-stricken, largely rural, mostly illiterate peasants. Autocratic rule; cruel and `efficient'.

Italy returned to its pre-Napoleonic state (2) The Papal States: Pope has temporal control, as well as spiritual control (ie. control of both Church and State). Popes were invariably Italian. The clergy had a stronghold over freedom of expression: the Inquisition and torture. The Pope was despotic and relied on Austrian force to keep control. Very backward, mostly rural, 2% literacy rurally.

Italy returned to its pre-Napoleonic state (3) Modena, Parma and Tuscany: Three independent duchies (areas ruled by dukes). Fairly good rulers, but all linked to the Austrian Habsburgs.

Italy returned to its pre-Napoleonic state (4) Lombardy and Venetia: A new kingdom formed under an Austrian Viceroy (a `vice-king') -- direct Austrian control. The richest part of Italy. Lombardy was the most fertile province for agriculture. Venetia was the richest trading centre. Government was well-organised: a strict police force, organised spying, censorship, no freedom of speech, thousands of political prisoners, as well as high taxes and dissatisfaction.

Italy returned to its pre-Napoleonic state (5) Piedmont (aka. the Kingdom of Sardinia): Ruled by King Victor Emmanuel I. Conservative and reactionary, but popular since he was Italian (from the House of Savoy). This was the only truly Italian-ruled state. A fairly poor country.

Annotating the essay Make a key and highlight … Factors (events, people, circumstances) making unification less likely Factors (events, people, circumstances) making unification more likely Find out a little more about each event/person/circumstance

The Revolts of 1820/1831 What did they achieve?

The revolts of 1820: Naples Causes: 1815, Ferdinand I is restored. 1818, Ferdinand increases his power: censorship, freedom of expression impossible. He is also in financial trouble, so cuts back on public spending. 1820, revolution in Spain causes a revolution in Naples, led by a priest, and supported by 100 cavalry NCOs (non-commissioned officers), 30 Carbonari (a secret society of nationalists). Gained support, General Pepe took over.

The revolts of 1820: Naples Result: King Ferdinand grants a new constitution. The Carbonari promise to reform the Church and redistribute land to peasants.

The revolts of 1820: Sicily Causes: Movement in Sicily for separation from Naples. Riot in Palermo following the riot in Naples. Middle class opposed separatism, and were prepared to use force against Sicily.

The revolts of 1820: Sicily Austrian action: Metternich was worried about the success of the revolt in Naples. Ferdinand ‘asked’ him to intervene. Austrians invaded and regained control. Severe repressions followed of the revolt leaders.

The revolts of 1820: Piedmont Causes: Victor Emmanuel I wiped out all traces of French improvement and returned to old, autocratic and conservative ways. The spark for the revolt was news of the Naples revolt.

The revolts of 1820: Piedmont Results: Victor Emmanuel I abdicates in favour of Charles Albert, who ruled as Regent. Charles Albert grants a liberal constitution and supports the revolt. 1821, the Austrians intervene and put the revolt down (with Piedmontese help) at the battle of Nevara. Charles Felix (the brother of Victor Emmanuel I) is now king. He reimposes an autocratic and repressive regime. He remains king until 1831. Piedmont is returned to a conservative state.

The revolts of 1831 General points: Mixed causes, as before. Ideas of unification more advanced, but still based on the Carbonari. Sparked off by events in France. Liberalism still important as well.

The revolts of 1831: Modena Masterminded by Enrico Misley, who wanted a united Italy and constitutional government. However, he was betrayed by Duke Francesco IV of Modena, who had offered support. Riots ensued, spreading to Parma, and were put down by local troops. Savage reprisals followed. The revolt had failed.

The revolts of 1831: Papal States Professional middle classes opposed clerical rule (anti-theocracy). Savagely repressed by papal troops.

The revolts of 1820/1831: Assessment Weakened by being localised/ parochial. Movements were not coordinated. Mainly represented middle classes interests after initial revolt: support lacking. Middle class had no army. The Austrians did.