Abdul-Monaf Al-Jadiry, M.D.; FRCPsych Professor of Psychiatry Motives Abdul-Monaf Al-Jadiry, M.D.; FRCPsych Professor of Psychiatry

Motives Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain behavior. It represents the reasons for people's actions, desires, and needs. Motivation can also be defined as one's direction to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior and vice versa.

Motives  A motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way, or at least develop an inclination for specific behavior Motivation is defined as the desire and action towards goal-directed behavior. It is an important concept in psychology as well as in health, business, schools, and other areas.

Motivation Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social and cognitive forces that activate behavior. The term motivation is frequently used to describe ”why a person does something”. Motives are the "whys" of behavior - the needs or wants that drive behavior and explain what we do. We don't actually observe a motive; rather, we infer that one exists based on the behavior we observe.

Components of Motivation Having the desire to accomplish something is not enough. Achieving such a goal requires the ability to persist through obstacles and endurance to keep going in spite of difficulties. Three major components to motivation: activation, Persistence intensity.

Components of Motivation Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a clinical class. Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. E.g. taking more clinical courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a significant investment of time, energy and resources. Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. E.g., one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly, participate in discussions and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class.

Approach Motivation versus Avoidance Motivation Approach motivation can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is rewarded or resulting in a positive/desirable outcome. Avoidance motivation can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is punished or resulting in a negative/undesirable outcome. Avoidance motivations tend to be more powerful than approach motivations. Because people expect losses to have more powerful emotional consequences than equal-size gains, they will take more risks to avoid a loss than to achieve a gain.

Motives Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic: Intrinsic Motivation: A person is intrinsically motivated if the desire for change comes from within the individual. The person may want to learn something because he or she is interested. Another person may want to accomplish a goal or task because it is something he or she feels competent at and enjoys doing. Extrinsic Motivation :  motivation comes from outside the person. They are bribed to do something or they earn a prize or reward. Examples Paychecks and Fear of punishment and coercion.

Motives Intrinsic & Extrinsic motivation can differ in how effective they are at driving behavior. Offering excessive external rewards for an already internally rewarding behavior can lead to a reduction in intrinsic motivation, a phenomenon known as the “over justification effect”. Extrinsic motivation can be beneficial in some situations, external rewards can induce interest and participation in something in which the individual had no initial interest.

Motives Extrinsic rewards can be used to motivate people to acquire new skills or knowledge. Once these early skills have been learned, people may then become more intrinsically motivated to pursue the activity. External rewards can also be a source of feedback, allowing people to know when their performance has achieved a standard deserving reinforcement.

Motives Extrinsic motivators should be avoided in situations where the individual already finds the activity intrinsically rewarding. Offering a reward might make a "play" activity seem more like "work“ Unexpected external rewards typically do not decrease intrinsic motivation.  Praise can help increase internal motivation.  Intrinsic motivation will decrease, however, when external rewards are given for completing a particular task or only doing minimal work. 

Motives In learning settings extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can also play a significant role in learning settings. Some experts argue that the traditional emphasis on external rewards such as grades, report cards, and gold stars undermines any existing intrinsic motivation that students might have. Others suggest that these extrinsic motivators help students feel more competent in the classroom, thus enhancing intrinsic motivation.

Theories of motivation A number of theories of motivation have been proposed including:  Drive theory Instinct theory Psychoanalytic theory Arousal theory Incentive theory Humanistic theory

Drive theory of motivation Drives pertain to the most basic physiological needs of man such as hunger, thirst, sex, and self-preservation.   Many of our behaviors such as eating, drinking and sleeping are motivated by biology. We have a biological need for food, water and sleep, therefore we are motivated to eat, drink and sleep.  Drive theory suggests that people have basic biological drives and that our behaviors are motivated by the need to fulfill these drives.

Instinct theory of motivation Instinct is a fixed and inborn pattern of behavior. The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by instincts. Psychologists have proposed a number of basic human instincts that motivate behavior. Such instincts might include biological instincts that are important for an organisms survival such as fear, cleanliness and love.

Psychoanalytic theory of motivation   According to Freud, humans have only two basic drives: “Eros (or Life meaning survival) and Thanatos (or death meaning aggression) drives.  According to Psychoanalytic theory, everything we do, every thought we have, and every emotion we experience has one of two goals: to help us survive or to prevent our destruction.  Freud believed that the vast majority of our knowledge about these drives is buried in the unconscious part of the mind.

Psychoanalytic theory of motivation   Examples: We go to school because it will help assure our survival in terms of improved finances, more money for healthcare, or even an improved ability to find a spouse.  We move to better school districts to improve our children’s ability to survive and continue our family tree.   We demand safety in our cars, toys, and in our homes.  We want criminal locked away, and we want to be protected against poisons, terrorists, and any thing else that could lead to our destruction. 

Arousal theory of motivation The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors that help them maintain their optimal level of “arousal”. A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities while those with high arousal needs might be motivated to engage in exciting, thrill-seeking behaviors.

Incentive theory of motivation Sometimes, behavior is not pushed by a need, it is pulled by a desire.   Incentives are stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning.  We learn to associate some stimuli with rewards and others with punishment, and we are motivated to seek the rewards.  Example,  you may learn that studying with friends is fun but does not produce the desired results around test time, so you are motivated to study alone to get the reward of a good test score.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs Maslow believed all people had an innate desire or drive to become “self-actualized”. People met their needs according to a particular order or hierarchy. He organized these needs into a triangle he called “the hierarchy of needs”. Basic needs (food, water, and shelter) fulfilled before other needs such as esteem and belonging could be met.

Humanistic theory of motivation

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