Research in Psychology Ms. K. Tsitsopoulos A.P. Psychology

First Psychological Experiment in History King Psamtik I of Egypt, in the latter half of the 7th Century B.C. believed the Egyptians were the most ancient race. In order to prove that he took two infants and isolated them with a herdsman. They were not allowed to hear spoken language. Psamtik believed that if children had no opportunity to learn a language from older people around them, they would spontaneously speak the primal, inborn language of humankind, which he expected to be Egyptian. The experiment worked, in that the first word/noise they uttered was becos. This was the Phrygian word for bread, hence he was disappointed to know the Phrygians were the older race. Today we know that under conditions of isolation there is no innate language and that children who hear no speech, never speak. Yet we admire him for trying to prove his hypothesis and having the notion that thoughts arise in the mind through internal processes that can be investigated.

Goals of Psychological Research Description: to describe or gather information about the behavior being studied and to present what is known Explanation: psychologists seek to explain why people (or animals) behave as they do. (they come up with a hypothesis and later a theory) Prediction: by studying past behavior, psychologists can predict future behaviors Influence: some psychologists seek to influence behavior in helpful ways (therapeutic treatments)

Scientific Method Ask a question? Form a Hypothesis (educated guess) Conduct an experiment Analyze the data Create conclusions

The Process of Doing Research First, select a topic, ASK A QUESTION! Then, search the literature Find out what others have done that might apply to your area of interest

The Process of Doing Research Next, formulate a hypothesis Hypothesis: specific statement of what you expect to happen (educated guess) State the relationship between two variables Variable: in an experiment, any factor that is measured or controlled and is capable of change

The Process of Doing Research Then pick your research method Experimental vs. correlational (Design) Field vs. laboratory (Setting) Finally, collect & analyze your data

Empirical Theory Knowledge based on direct observation Set of ideas which try to explain what we observe Goal is to find support OR disprove We can never prove!!

Experimental Research Research that manipulates one variable (IV) to see effect on other variable (DV) Try to hold everything else constant

True experiments have… Random sampling: selecting participants randomly from population (and a lot of them! The bigger the sample—the better!) Representative Sampling: the sample can represent the population you’re testing Example: How tall is the average male in Illinois? Should I include the b-ball players from the Chicago Bulls?? Is that representative?

Let’s take a closer look . . .at variables Dependent variable (outcome variable) The variable that may change in response to changes of the independent variable The factor that is being measured Independent variable (predictor variable) Control group doesn’t get this! The factor being manipulated or changed The variable whose effect is being studied

Experimental Group: the group to which an independent variable is applied Control Group: the group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group EXCEPT that the independent variable is not applied

Example Do students get better test grades in classrooms with a higher temperature or lower temperature? Dependent Variable? Independent Variable? Control Group? Experimental Group(s)?

Example Dependent Variable? Independent Variable? Control Group? Are men or women more likely to stop and help someone when their car breaks down? Dependent Variable? Independent Variable? Control Group? Experimental Group(s)?

Example Does playing violent video games cause violence in teenagers? Dependent Variable? Independent Variable? Control Group? Experimental Group(s)?

Double-blind Procedure In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenter’s assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment. Psychology 7e in Modules

Design Differences Correlational Design Experimental Design a researcher examines relationships among variables that are not manipulated by the researcher Track trends and patterns For example: researchers may study developmental changes, compare males and females, or look at the impact of disasters on the incidence of depression.  the researcher does manipulate or change some characteristic(s) of the situation and then measures to determine the effects of the manipulation or change For example: Manipulating or changing temperatures in a testing environment

Experimental vs. correlational Correlational: observe the relationship between two variables Describe patterns of behavior Types include Naturalistic observation Case studies Surveys

Naturalistic Observation Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation PROS: Provides descriptive data CONS: Observer bias and subject self-consciousness can distort results Jane Goodall was famous for her naturalistic observation of chimpanzees in the wild Psychology 7e in Modules

Case Study A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles. (up to 5 people) PROS: Provide detailed descriptive analyses of new, complex, or rare phenomena CONS: may not provide representative picture of phenomena (not able to generalize) Preview Question 8: How do psychologists observe and describe behavior? Sigmund Freud used this technique! Psychology 7e in Modules

Survey A technique for getting the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people. PROS: gathers large amounts of descriptive data relatively quickly and inexpensively CONS: sampling errors, poorly phrased questions and response biases can distort results Psychology 7e in Modules

Wording can change the results of a survey. Problems with Surveys Wording Effects Wording can change the results of a survey. Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbidden)

Correlational research Advantages Sometimes manipulation of variables is impossible or unethical Efficient – look at lots of data Disadvantages CANNOT DETERMINE CAUSATION Could be a lurking variable that cannot be controlled like in a lab

Types of Studies: Longitudinal Study: a study conducted on participants over a long period of time (months, years) Pros: better data because of how long you study the participants Cons: some participants could back out after a while, or die Example: Tracking IQ scores of children who were breastfed as infants compared to children who were not breastfed as infants.

Types of Studies: Cross-Sectional study: a study conducted on participants of different age groups Pros: better comparative data between different age groups Cons: Age is the main factor measured, even though the participants may be reacting because of other variables Example: Researchers study which age groups watch which T.V. shows to determine what products to advertise during commercial breaks.

Placebo Effect An effect or behavior caused by your beliefs and expectations as opposed to something external An effect or behavior caused by a substance or condition which the recipient assumes is working Example: Participant takes a pill assuming it will relieve their headache. Their headache does go away, but the pill they took was a sugar pill. The IDEA of the pill helped them recover! That’s the placebo effect!

Hindsight Bias The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew it all along.

We tend to think we know more than we do! Overconfidence We tend to think we know more than we do! 82% of U.S. drivers consider themselves to be in the top 30% of their group in terms of safety 81% of new business owners felt they had an excellent chance of their businesses succeeding. When asked about the success of their peers, the answer was only 39%.

Ethics in Research Should the study be done? Value vs. potential cost APA guidelines How do we protect Participants? Informed consent Confidentiality & anonymity Debriefing No long lasting psychological harm