The Development of Children, Seventh Edition Cynthia Lightfoot, Michael Cole, and Sheila R. Cole Chapter 4: The First 3 Months

Chapter Overview Physical Growth Brain Development Sensing the Environment The Organization of Behavior Temperament Becoming Coordinated with the Social World Summing Up the First 3 Months

I. Physical Growth Early growth is rapid In 12 weeks, infants Gain about 6 pounds (2.7 kilograms) Grow more than 4 inches (10 centimeters) Expanding head circumference Growing brains Pushes against the skull Head circumference expands

I. Apply – Connect – Discuss In societies in which mothers have the option of breast- or bottle-feeding their newborns, their choice is often influenced by cultural norms and expectations. Interview your mother and your grandmother about newborn feeding practices common in their generation. (If your mother or grandmother is not available, find another mother of the same generation.) Ask about how newborns were fed, why women might have chosen one method over another, what their own choices were, and so forth. Compare the two women’s experiences, and assess them in light of what is now known regarding feeding practices and infants’ physical development.

II. Brain Development The brain at birth Contains most of the neurons it will ever have. Will grow four times larger by adulthood

Brain Development Growth in brain size as a results of: Neuronal connections Synaptogenesis Myelination Insulates axons and speeds transmission of impulses “Use it or lose it” process

Cerebral Cortex Cerebral Cortex The brain’s outermost layer and most complex system. Processing center for the perception of patterns, the execution of complex motor sequences, planning, decision making, and speech.

Cerebral Cortex At birth, its circuitry is less mature than the brain stem or spinal cord. The brain stem controls reflexes and vital functions, such as breathing.

Development of the Brain Two major classes of development: Experience-expectant process Under genetic controls, occur in any environment Example: evolution of visual cortex Experience-dependent process Initiated in response to experience Example: work on enriched environments by Mark Rosenzweigand and his colleagues

II. Apply – Connect – Discuss It is widely believed that the developing brain benefits from an enriched environment and suffers in an environment of deprivation. Using the language and concepts presented in this section, explain what it means for an environment to be “enriched” or “deprived.”

III. Sensing the Environment Newborns’ sensory systems are all functioning. But some are more developed than others. Example: touch and smell is more advanced compared to vision. Methods for assessing sensory capabilities: Overt response Preferential looking Habituation/Dishabituation

Hearing Sensitivity to phonemes 2-month-olds, can perceived distinctions used in all the world’s languages By about 6 to 8 months of age, only the sounds made in the language(s) they hear

Vision Newborns are very nearsighted Newborns are able to: scan their surroundings perceive patterns and distinguish among forms show a preference for faces distinguish their mother’s face

Taste and Smell Responses to Sweet tastes and smells Example: breast milk Calming effect Pain relief Sour, bitter, and salty tastes Foul odors

Intermodal Perception The ability to perceive an object or event by more than one sensory system simultaneously.

III. Apply – Connect – Discuss This section has introduced you to several different research methods that developmentalists use to answer questions about the newborn’s sensory systems. Identify and briefly describe four of these methods. Choose one or two of them to design a study addressing some facet of infant sensory capacity.

IV. The Organization of Behavior Behavioral organization is important for Interacting more effectively and adaptively with their surroundings Increasing physical control and coordination Smiling in response to the smiles of others Performing deliberate actions

The Organization of Behavior Reflexes Involuntary Building blocks for action From Reflex to Coordinated Action Coordination of components of behavior in smooth, integrated sequence Feeding “Stepping reflex”

From Reflexes to Coordinated Action Explanations: Piaget’s Theory of Developing Action Learning Theories of Developing Action

Piaget’s Theory of Developing Action According to Jean Piaget Infants gain knowledge largely by coordinating sensory perceptions and simple motor responses.

Piaget’s Theory Sensorimotor Stage, Substages 1 and 2: Substage 1: Exercising reflex schemas. infants learn to control and coordinate inborn reflexes Substage 2: Primary circular reactions. accommodation first appears, with infants’ prolonging pleasant sensations arising from reflex actions

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Learning Theories of Developing Action According to learning theorists Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior, occurs when the infant makes associations between its behavior and events in the environment. Gives rise to new forms of behavioral organization.

Learning Theories of Developing Action Several types of learning operate in development. Classical conditioning: previously existing behaviors come to be associated with and elicited by new stimuli. Operant conditioning: new behaviors may come about as a result of reinforcement and punishment of behaviors

IV. Apply – Connect – Discuss Suppose you have been hired by a local health clinic to lead a class on newborn behavioral organization for expecting parents. How would you describe “behavioral organization” to these parents? How would you explain its importance for development? What sorts of activities or interactions would you recommend to parents for promoting the development of behavioral organization in their newborn?

V. Temperament Individual differences in infants Traits Both genetic and environmental influences Traits Activity level Quality of mood Attention span

V. Apply – Connect – Discuss How would you characterize your own temperament in light of the discussion above? In what ways have your temperamental characteristics influenced who you are?

VI. Becoming Coordinated with the Social World Infants’ survival depends on: Responsive caregivers Infants’ ability to coordinate their own actions with those of caregivers Sleeping Feeding Crying

Infants’ Sleep How often: Types of sleep Sleeping about two-thirds of the time Adopting adults’ sleep cycle Influences of culture For example, Kipsigis babies in rural Kenya Types of sleep Periods of sleep are relatively brief

Feeding Nursing Influence of culture Newborns prefer a 3-hour schedule By 2½ months, infants have a 4-hour schedule By 7 or 8 months, they approximate an adult schedule Influence of culture

Crying Primitive means of communication The effects of infant crying: May have evolved as a signal to promote caregiving The effects of infant crying: Evokes a strong emotional response in adults Warning that something may be wrong Certain distinctive patterns may indicate difficulties Cultural differences

VI. Apply – Connect – Discuss How would you respond to a new parent who takes an operant conditioning approach to newborn crying, believing that babies will cry more if their crying is “reinforced” by the parents’ always responding to it?

VII. Summing Up the First 3 Months Developmental changes rapid physical growth maturation of the central nervous system shift from reflexes to complex actions Changes originate in biology and depend on the environment.