What is representation?

Enquiry Question: How do senators and representatives fulfil their representative role?

Learning Outcomes To analyse the different models of representation To explain what influences the voting of members of congress To evaluate the extent to which members of Congress prioritise local interests over national interests

Representation This term can be used in a number of different ways. Representation can be understood in terms of how legislators represent their constituents. In this sense there are four different models of representation.

Models of Representation Trustee Model Delegate Mandate Resemblance Model The representative acts as the person who is vested with formal responsibility for the affairs of others. Such representation is based upon the considered judgement of the legislator. The elected representative is ‘trusted’ to make the right judgement. Constituents elect their representatives as delegates for their constituency. Essentially, the representative acts as the voice of those who are (literally) not present. Constituents elect their representatives and consequently provide them with a mandate to carry out certain policies that they have campaigned on. This model focuses on who represents the electorate, and considers how representative legislators are in terms of such factors as gender and race.

Learning Outcomes To analyse the different models of representation To explain what influences the voting of members of congress To evaluate the extent to which members of Congress prioritise local interests over national interests

YOUR TASK: Read the handout “How Members Decide to Vote”. Watch video: Crash Course – Congressional Decisions

How do members of Congress decide to vote? Political Party Can be the most important factor – ‘party votes’ on contentious issues. Parties have few punishments/incentives to offer members. Party labels don’t always mean whole party voting together (regional ideologies). Internal party groups e.g. Blue Dog Democrats

How do members of Congress decide to vote? Constituents Constituents Trustee model of representation “folks back home”, “locality rule” Failing to look after/represent constituents can result in electoral defeat Phone, email, local news, visits, letters from constituents Regular visits “home” for party/town hall meetings, ‘surgeries’, local TV and radio, interviews with local media, addressing groups, visiting schools, hospitals etc. Views of constituents = divided (discontented v content = representative?) (National good + local popularity + electoral benefit) of policies to balance

How do members of Congress decide to vote? The Administration Members of the executive branch including POTUS, VPOTUS, cabinet members etc. Legislation initiated by the administration – keen interest so in touch with members/committees to influence votes Two way street of cooperation Supporting unpopular legislation/administration can be costly

How do members of Congress decide to vote? Pressure Groups Try to influence members and votes Direct contact with members Attempt to generate public support Phone calls, make visits Provide evidence to committees Organise rallies, demonstrations and petitions Fundraising and campaigning Campaign donations

How do members of Congress decide to vote? Colleagues and Staff Huge number of votes – impossible to be an expert on all issues and policies Reliance on others for help Colleagues – same party, same philosophy, same views – ‘mentors’, advice, suggestions Senior staff – chief of staff or legislative director

How do members of Congress decide to vote? Personal Beliefs Applicable on certain votes – usually abortion, capital punishment etc. Generally members personal beliefs are similar to the majority of their constituents especially if a member adopts a trustee or mandate model of representation

How do members of Congress decide to vote? Political Party Constituents The administration Pressure Groups Colleagues and Staff Personal Beliefs Discussion Questions: To what extent does each factor affect how a Member of Congress votes? Can you identify a single “deciding factor”? How do members balance all of these factors?

Learning Outcomes To analyse the different models of representation To explain what influences the voting of members of congress To evaluate the extent to which members of Congress prioritise local interests over national interests

Members of Congress are more concerned with local issues than national or international issues.

YOUR TASK: Find examples to illustrate these arguments. Members of Congress are more concerned with local issues than national or international issues. Arguments for Arguments against • Elections every two years that mean that members of Congress have to demonstrate that their term has been productive to the community they serve. [Find example] • This leads to pork barrel politics. • That debates for elections tend to be on local issues. • When members of Congress vote they do so bearing their constituents in mind above all others. • The oversight of foreign policy and the implementation of federal law • Congressional elections have become increasingly ideological in character, reducing the importance of appealing mainly to local concerns. YOUR TASK: Find examples to illustrate these arguments.

Assess the factors that influence the votes of members of Congress

Assess the factors that influence the votes of members of Congress. KNOWLEDGE: The differences between the House and the Senate Voting records Case studies of legislation such as health care reform Concepts such as the “folks back home”, the pork barrel, log rolling, earmarking The role of committees in the legislative process Congressional liaison from the White House The role of party and Congressional leadership The impact of caucus groups The role played by pressure groups Examples of conscience issues and individual ideological perspectives such as Ron Paul’s libertarianism.

Assess the factors that influence the votes of members of Congress. ANALYSIS & EVALUATION: Candidates should identify a range of factors and attempt to rank their relative importance. Candidates are likely to consider the relative weakness of parties, although this can be contrasted with reference to increased partisanship in Congress in recent times. Case studies such as health care reform may be used to illustrate the role played by pressure groups and the divide between Congress and the presidency. Candidate-centred campaigns, the two year term of the House and discussion of the notion that “all politics is local” may also feature. This might be linked to name recognition and constituency links from the congressional office. At the top of level 3, candidates will not only list a range of factors which influence voting in Congress but attempt to evaluate or rank their relative significance. Better candidates will make reference to contemporary developments to illustrate their answers and may make some attempt to consider the extent to which Congress serves the minority rather than the public interest.

Which is more important – the House or the Senate? (15) YOUR TASK: Read the model answer to a similar exam question. Annotate the answer as a teacher would, for example focusing on accuracy, structure, examples and written expression. Use the mark scheme to award a level and a mark. Write a brief justification for your mark to this student. What were the strengths of this answer? How could this answer be improved? This is a very typical mid-Level 2 answer. There are four valid points and some degree of explanation and development. On the debit side, there are very few examples; there is a lack of clarity in places and the candidate wastes time with their introduction and definition of an interest group. It was awarded 9 marks.

Examiner Advice This is a straightforward question; it offered candidates few opportunities to trip themselves up, and most could cover three or four factors with some measure of credible evidence. That said, a small number took it to be a unit 3 question, and focused on factors influencing voters when they vote for congressional candidates, rather than the factors which influence the members of Congress themselves. The most commonly cited factors were pressure groups, party loyalty, district or state interests and presidential persuasion; a number of candidates discussed personal beliefs as an influence, but they often found it difficult to separate it from other factors, or give a convincing example; Democratic support for the Stupak-Pitts amendment might be considered to be one. As was true for all questions, the strongest answers not only presented three or four factors but could also assess the extent of their influence. This could be done in a number of ways, for example looking at the extent to which the influence of a factor has changed over time (the growth of partisanship was often discussed in this way), comparing different factors to show which was more important, or comparing different policy issues or political scenarios, to show how different factors may be more or less important in different situations. The recent Senate vote on the Manchin-Toomey amendment provided a good example of the tension between party and state loyalties. Most answers focused on voting on legislation, but some made rewardable reference to Senate votes on Supreme Court nominees, which certainly provided evidence of increasing partisanship.

Learning Outcomes To analyse the different models of representation To explain what influences the voting of members of congress To evaluate the extent to which members of Congress prioritise local interests over national interests

Fun Facts: Members of Congress Nancy Pelosi John McCain Mitch McConnell Dianne Feinstein Paul Ryan Bernie Sanders Al Franken Tammy Baldwin Rand Paul You have 5 minutes to find as many fun facts as possible about one of these high profile Members of Congres.

Homework Application Task: Assess the factors that influence the votes of members of Congress. (15) Flipped Learning Preparation Task: The Changing Significance of Parties in Congress (Pearson p355-358) Stretch & Challenge Task Article: The Weirdest Members of Congress