CHAPTER ONE Studying Adult Development and Aging

Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging Gerontology – The study of aging from maturity through old age AGEISM, a form of discrimination against older adults based on their age. What are some of the myths and stereotypes about aging? Do you have any erroneous beliefs about aging? Do you harbor any stereotypes about older people?

Ageism Survey

Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging Aging Stereotypes Stereotype 1: Physical Most people over 65 are physically impaired. Large percentages live in nursing homes. Stereotype 2: Cognitive People over 65 are unable to think clearly, remember well, or learn new things. A large percentage is “senile.”

Aging Stereotypes, (cont.) Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging Aging Stereotypes, (cont.) Stereotype 3: Emotional People over 65 are unhappy, fearful, and depressed. Psychological problems are rampant in old age. Stereotype 4: Social People over 65 are isolated, alone, and disconnected from family and friends. Poverty is endemic in the later years.

Aging Stereotypes, (cont.) Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging Aging Stereotypes, (cont.) Number 1. Physical Large percentage live in nursing homes. Fact: Although most older adults do suffer from at least one chronic disease, the vast majority report no impairments in their ability to function. Only 5% of older Americans live in nursing homes.

Aging Stereotypes, (cont) Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging Aging Stereotypes, (cont) Number 2. Cognitive People over 65 can’t think clearly. Fact: Although losses in thinking, speed, and memory do occur with age, the vast majority of older adults are alert, mentally capable, and definitely able to learn. Only about 5-7% have Alzheimer's disease.

Aging Stereotypes, (cont) Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging Aging Stereotypes, (cont) Number 3. Emotional People over 65 are unhappy. Fact: Anxiety, depression, and unhappiness are no more prevalent among the old than the young. In fact, rates of many emotional disorders are at their lowest ebb among people over 65.

Aging Stereotypes, (cont) Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging Aging Stereotypes, (cont) Number 4. Social People over 65 are isolated. Fact: Older adults are typically in close contact with family, and even those over age 85 have at least one close friend. With 12% of older Americans living under the poverty line, compared to one-fourth of American children under age 6, dire poverty is twice as common at life's beginning than at its final stage.

The Life Span Perspective (LSP) LSP views life from conception to death LSP divides human development into two phases: 1. Early (childhood and adolescence) 2. Later (young adulthood, middle age, and old age)

The Life Span Perspective Paul Baltes (1987) identified FOUR key features: 1. Multidirectionality: development involves both growth and decline 2. Plasticity: one’s capabilities & potential are not fixed

The Life Span Perspective 3. Historical context: development occurs within a certain set of historical circumstances Cohort: a group of people who share historical influences of a particular time 4. Multiple causation: development is influenced by biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces.

The Demographics of Aging Population Trends in the United States July 1, 2000 Figure 1.1 Population demographics for 2000

The Demographics of Aging Population Trends in the United States Projected to July 1, 2025 Figure 1.2 Population demographics for 2025

The Demographics of Aging Population Trends in the United States Projected to July 1, 2050 Figure 1.2 Population demographics for 2025

The Demographics of Aging Population Trends in the United States Projected to July 1, 2100 Figure 1.2 Population demographics for 2025

Forces of development Biopsychosocial framework Biological forces: genetic and health-related factors Psychological forces: internal perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and personality factors Sociocultural forces: interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors Life-cycle forces: provide a context in which all the other forces may combine and interact

Interrelations between the Forces: Developmental Influences Normative age-graded influences: occur to most people at the same age

Interrelations between the Forces: Developmental Influences Normative history-graded influences: events that most people in a specific culture experience at the same time.

Interrelations between the Forces: Developmental Influences Non-normative influences: random/rare events that happen to an individual

Issues in Studying Adult Development and Aging The Meaning of Age Primary aging: normal and disease-free Secondary aging: related to disease, lifestyle, and environmental factors Tertiary aging: rapid losses that occur shortly before death (cognition changes, etc.)

Issues in Studying Adult Development and Aging Definitions of Age Chronological age: age in years since birth Perceived age: the age you think of yourself as Biological age: where one is in relation to possible life span Psychological age: Involves functioning levels Sociocultural age: refers to expected roles one has in relation to others

Issues in Studying Adult Development and Aging Core Issues in Development The nature-nurture issue: Do genetics or environment shape the individual? The stability-change issue: Do people remain the same over time? The continuity-discontinuity controversy: Is development smooth or does it occur in abrupt shifts? Plasticity: capacity is not fixed and can be changed The universal versus context-specific development controversy: Is development the same for everyone all over the world?

Research Methods Theory: an organized system of assumptions and principles that tries to explain a certain set of phenomena and their interrelationships Example: “Boys are rougher than girls”

Research Methods Hypothesis: a statement that attempts to predict or account for a set of phenomena. Example: “Toys that are played with by boys will show more signs of wear than toys that are played with by girls” Operational definition: a precise definition of a term in a hypothesis

Collecting data: Research methods

Systematic Observation Researchers carefully and systematically observe and record behavior without interfering with behavior Naturalistic observation Purpose is to observe how people or animals behave in their natural environments. Laboratory (Structured) observation Purpose is to observe how people or animals behave in a more controlled setting.

chapter 1 Descriptive methods Methods that yield descriptions of behavior, but not necessarily causal explanations Include: Observational studies Case studies Psychological tests Self reports

Case studies A detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated, which may be used to formulate broader research hypotheses Most commonly used by clinicians; occasionally used by researchers

Self Reports: Surveys Questionnaires and interviews that ask people about experiences, attitudes, or opinions Social desirability: the tendency of participants to respond in a way they think is socially acceptable or desirable rather than how they truly feel or think

Correlational study A descriptive study that looks for a consistent relationship between two phenomena Correlation A statistical measure of how strongly two variables are related to one another. Correlational coefficients can range from -1.0 to +1.0.

Direction of correlations Positive correlations An association between increases in one variable and increases in another, or decreases in one variable and decreases in the other. Negative correlations An association between increases in one variable and decreases in another.

Explaining correlations Correlations show patterns, not causes. Third variable effect: Perhaps the phenomenon is caused by an unknown “third” variable

Experimental research  Allows psychologists to determine the cause of a behavior

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Experiment: A controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another.

Variables of interest Independent variables Variables the experimenter manipulates Dependent variables Variables the experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable(s)

Violent cartoons

Nonviolent cartoons

Representative sample A subgroup that accurately reflects the population about which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions

Experimental condition Group that is exposed to the variable of interest

Control condition In an experiment, a comparison condition in which subjects are not exposed to the same treatment as in the experimental condition.

Random assignment Each individual participating in the study has the same probability as any other of being assigned to a given group.

Experimenter effects Unintended changes in subjects’ behavior due to cues inadvertently given by the experimenter. Strategies for preventing experimenter effects include single- and double-blind studies.

Placebo effect Occurs when participant expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produce the desired outcome. Placebo: an inactive substance or fake treatment.

Evaluating findings

Descriptive statistics Statistical procedures that organize and summarize research data

Inferential statistics Statistical procedures that allow researchers to draw inferences about how statistically meaningful a study’s results are. The most commonly used inferential statistics are significance tests. Statistical tests that show how likely it is that a study’s results occurred merely by chance

Integrating Findings from Different Studies Research Methods Integrating Findings from Different Studies Meta-analysis: Powerful tool Determines whether a finding generalizes across many studies that used different methods

Conducting Research Ethically Minimize risks to research participants. Describe the research to potential participants. Avoid deception. Results should be anonymous or confidential.

Research Methods Reliability: Consistency in findings Validity: Does research measure the phenomenon of interest?

Designs for Studying Development Research Methods Designs for Studying Development Cross-sectional designs: test or observe people of different ages at the same time Longitudinal designs: test or observe the same individuals repeatedly at different points in their lives Sequential designs: represent different combinations of cross-sectional or longitudinal studies