The Rise of African Nationalism HI177 | A History of Africa since 1800 Term 2 | Week 4 | Dr Sacha Hepburn

Dates of African Independence

Nationalism(s) French Assimilation British Accommodation West Central Africa Algeria British Accommodation West African inclusion East African co-option Central African federation African Constitutionalists Afrikaner Nationalism in South Africa

Nationalist Politics Political leaders Political parties Campaigning Conservatives v radicals Traditionalists v modernisers Political parties Elite or mass? Local or national? Or international Campaigning Ideology and programme? Development & anti-colonialism How funded? Who votes? Elections What system? What constitution?

The New African, March 1946 Pan-African Congress, Manchester, October 1945

Nationalist Politics Political leaders Political parties Campaigning Conservatives v radicals Traditionalists v modernisers Political parties Elite or mass? Local or national? Or international? Campaigning Ideology and programme? Development & anti-colonialism How funded? Who votes? Elections What system? What constitution?

Paths to Independence Various paths to independence… Election (e.g. Ghana) Negotiation (e.g. Sudan, Nigeria) Violence Urban unrest, labour militancy (e.g. Belgian Congo) Liberation wars (e.g. Algeria, Mozambique, Angola) Role of guerrilla struggle (e.g. Zimbabwe) Often a combination of these…

Case 1: Gold Coast to Ghana Legislative elections, 1946 - won by UGCC UGCC: United Gold Coast Convention (Danquah) Old-fashioned, elite party, led by traditional chiefs and educated urban businessmen CPP: Convention People’s Party (Nkrumah) Radical mass party, led by younger activists and graduates. INC as model (Gandhi) Mobilised youth groups, urban and rural Positive Action Campaign, 1950: Imprisonment of Nkrumah and others

Case 1: Gold Coast to Ghana Legislative elections, 1951: won by CPP, Nkrumah becomes ‘leader of govt business’ 6 March 1957 – elections, full independence Nkrumah first Prime Minister

Case 2: Mau Mau and Kenya Emergent Nationalist politics, 1945- KAU: Kenya African Union Moderates v Militants Constitutionalists v Direct Action State of Emergency, October 1952 Arrest of Kenyatta & KAU leaders Capture of Dedan Kimathi, Oct 1956 Detention camps (1954-1960)

Suspected Mau Mau members at a detention camp in Nairobi, 1952 The arrest of Dedan Kimathi, 1956 Searching for Mau Mau, Karoibangi, 1954

Case 2: Mau Mau and Kenya Rebuilding politics National parties Local parties, November 1956 New constitution, elected Africans National parties KANU – centralist (Kenyatta) KADU – federalist (Moi) Independence – 12 December 1963 Mau Mau – victory or defeat?

Conclusions The paths and processes towards independence were not inevitable… Avoid ‘reading history backwards’ (Cooper) Different visions of independence ’Winds of change’ not felt with the same strength everywhere Portuguese hold on to their colonies (until 1975) White settlers resist change (Algeria, Kenya, Southern Rhodesia, South Africa)

Email: s.hepburn@warwick.ac.uk Office hours: Questions? Email: s.hepburn@warwick.ac.uk Office hours: Monday 3-4pm and Friday 11am-12pm H3.31, third floor Humanities