Discovering Psychology Special Update For DSM-5 Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury Discovering Psychology Sixth Edition Special Update For DSM-5 Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Table 8.1 James’s List of Human Instincts Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

The tendency of our bodies to maintain a stable body weight is well documented (Schwartz & others, 2000). Maintaining a stable body weight occurs when you experience energy balance—that is, when the calories you take in almost exactly match the calories you expend for physical activity and metabolism. Figure 8.1 Energy Balance Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8.2 Blood Glucose and the Motivation to Eat In this graph, the red dots depict the effects of insulin triggering a small decline in blood glucose over the course of about 30 minutes. As blood glucose decreases, the person’s subjective desire to eat increases sharply, depicted by the green line. Notice that although this person did not eat, his blood glucose level returned to normal within the hour and his desire to eat diminished. In daily life, a small decline in blood glucose level is one of the factors that reliably predict our motivation to eat. Figure 8.2 Blood Glucose and the Motivation to Eat Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8.3 Ghrelin: The Hunger Hormone The recently discovered hormone named ghrelin is manufactured primarily by the stomach and stimulates appetite (Nakazato & others, 2001). The graph shows the average plasma levels of ghrelin for 10 normal-weight individuals over the course of 24 hours. Ghrelin levels rise shortly before eating, precipitating feelings of hunger. During and shortly after the meal, ghrelin levels, and feelings of hunger, fall (Cummings & others, 2002). So, if your stomach is ghrelin, you must be hungry! Figure 8.3 Ghrelin: The Hunger Hormone Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8.4 Regulating Appetite and Body Weight Multiple signals interact to regulate your appetite and energy expenditure so that you maintain a stable body weight over time. As summarized in this drawing, your appetite is stimulated (+) by increased levels of ghrelin and neuropeptide Y. On the other hand, your appetite is suppressed (-) by increased levels of leptin, insulin, and CCK. Figure 8.4 Regulating Appetite and Body Weight Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8.5 Calculating Your BMI: Where Do You Weigh In? Body mass index (BMI) is often used as a “quick and dirty” measure of obesity because it can be easily calculated. However, BMI is not the most accurate measure of obesity, because obesity involves not just a high weight-to-height ratio but also a high proportion of body fat. Thus, a very muscular athlete might have a high BMI but still have a healthy weight. Another simple measure of obesity is waist circumference. According to this measure, an adult male’s waist should be no more than 40 inches in circumference, and an adult woman’s waist should be no more than 35 inches. Some researchers prefer this as a measure of obesity because it indicates the amount of abdominal fat tissue, which is considered to be most damaging to physical health. Figure 8.5 Calculating Your BMI: Where Do You Weigh In? Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8.6 Age and Gender Differences in Metabolism From infancy through adolescence, there is a steep decline in the rate at which your body uses energy for vital functions, such as heartbeat, breathing, and body heat. Your BMR continues to decrease by about 2 to 3 percent during each decade of adulthood. At all points in the lifespan, women’s metabolic rate is 3 to 5 percent lower than men’s. Figure 8.6 Age and Gender Differences in Metabolism Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8.7 Genetic Susceptibility and Environmental Conditions If different populations have similar percentages of people who are genetically susceptible to obesity, then the critical factor becomes environmental conditions. In a low-risk environment, the availability of food, especially high-calorie foods, is limited. In countries with poorly developed economies and food supplies, the prevalence of underfed people (BMI < 17) is higher than the prevalence of obesity (BMI > 30). But in countries with established or well-developed economies, such as most Western countries, food is plentiful and easily attainable, creating high-risk conditions for obesity. In highly developed market economies, obesity rates have soared. Figure 8.7 Genetic Susceptibility and Environmental Conditions Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8.8 The Male and Female Sexual Response Cycles The figure on the left depicts the three basic variations of the female sexual response. Pattern 1 shows multiple orgasms. Pattern 2 shows sexual arousal that reaches the plateau stage but not orgasm, followed by a slow resolution. Pattern 3 depicts brief reductions in arousal during the excitement stage, followed by rapid orgasm and resolution. The figure on the right depicts the most typical male sexual response, in which orgasm is followed by a refractory period. Figure 8.8 The Male and Female Sexual Response Cycles Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8.9 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow believed that people are innately motivated to satisfy a progression of needs, beginning with the most basic physiological needs. Once the needs at a particular level are satisfied, the individual is motivated to satisfy the needs at the next level, steadily progressing upward. The ultimate goal is self-actualization, the realization of personal potential. Figure 8.9 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Table 8.2 Maslow’s Characteristics of Self-Actualized People Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Table 8.3 The Basic Emotions Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8.10 Fear Circuits in the Brain When you’re faced with a potentially threatening stimulus—like a snake dangling from a stick—information arrives in the thalamus and is relayed simultaneously along two pathways. Crude, archetypal information rapidly travels the direct route to the amygdala, triggering an almost instantaneous fear response. More detailed information is sent along the pathway to the visual cortex, where the stimulus is interpreted. If the cortex determines that a threat exists, the information is relayed to the amygdala along the longer, slower pathway. The amygdala triggers other brain structures, such as the hypothalamus, which activate the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system’s release of stress hormones. Figure 8.10 Fear Circuits in the Brain Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8.11 The James–Lange Theory of Emotion According to William James, we don’t tremble and run because we are afraid, we are afraid because we tremble and run. James believed that body signals trigger emotional experience. These signals include physiological arousal and feedback from the muscles involved in behavior. The James–Lange theory inspired a great deal of research, but only limited aspects of the theory have been supported by research evidence. Figure 8.11 The James–Lange Theory of Emotion Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8.12 The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion According to Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, emotional experience requires the interaction of two separate factors: (1) physiological arousal and (2) a cognitive label for that arousal. Figure 8.12 The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion Don H. Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury: Discovering Psychology, Sixth Edition – Special Update For DSM-5 Copyright © 2014 by Worth Publishers

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