Chapter 8 Adolescence Child Development A Cultural Approach Copyright © 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Learning Objectives (1 of 5) 8.1 List the physical changes that begin puberty and summarize the surprising changes in brain development during adolescence. 8.2 Describe the normative timing of pubertal events, cultural variations, and how being early or late influences emotional and social development. 8.3 Identify the main gender differences in puberty rituals worldwide. 8.4 Describe the prevalence, symptoms, and treatment of eating disorders. 8.5 Classify adolescent substance use into four categories.

Learning Objectives (2 of 5) 8.6 Explain the features of hypothetical-deductive reasoning and identify critiques of Piaget’s theory of formal operations. 8.7 Summarize the major changes in attention and memory that take place from middle childhood to adolescence. 8.8 Define the imaginary audience and the personal fable and explain how they reflect egocentrism in adolescence. 8.9 Produce an example of the zone of proximal development and scaffolding involving adolescents.

Learning Objectives (3 of 5) 8.10 Describe why the transition to secondary schools may be challenging for adolescents, and identify some factors influencing high school graduation and dropout rates 8.11 Compare and contrast the secondary education systems and academic performance of developed countries and developing countries. 8.12 Summarize the typical forms of adolescent work in developing countries and developed countries, and name the features of apprenticeships in Europe. 8.13 Summarize the results of the ESM studies with respect to adolescent emotionality.

Learning Objectives (4 of 5) 8.14 Describe how self conceptions change during adolescence 8.15 Discriminate between Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and Jensen’s worldviews theory. 8.16 Describe the cultural variations in religious beliefs during adolescence as well as the sources and outcomes of religiosity within cultures. 8.17 Summarize the cultural variations in adolescents’ relationships with parents, siblings, and extended family. 8.18 Describe cultural variations in adolescents’ relationships with friends, and characterize their interactions with peers.

Learning Objectives (5 of 5) 8.19 Identify cultural variations in adolescent love and sexuality, including variations in adolescent pregnancy and contraceptive use. 8.20 Explain the function of media use in adolescents’ lives and apply the Media Practice Model to the playing of electronic games. 8.21 Summarize the explanations for why age and crime are so strongly correlated, and describe the multisystemic approach to combating delinquency. 8.22 Identify the different types and rates of depression and summarize the most effective treatments. 8.23 Define resilience and name the protective factors that are related to resilience in adolescence.

Physical Development

Biological Changes of Puberty: The Physical Changes of Puberty (1 of 3) Puberty is a time period of rapid biological growth Hormonal changes associated with percentage of body fat Estrogen – estradiol production 8 times higher in females Androgens – testosterone is 20 times higher in males

Biological Changes of Puberty: The Physical Changes of Puberty (2 of 3) Primary sex characteristics – directly related to reproduction Secondary sex characteristics – other bodily changes due to hormonal increases Girls experience menarche (first menstrual period) Boys experience spermarche (first ejaculation)

Biological Changes of Puberty: The Physical Changes of Puberty (3 of 3) Exuberance and synaptic pruning Especially concentrated in the frontal lobes Myelination encourages efficiency in thought Cerebellum continues to grow

Figure 8.2 Hormonal Changes in Puberty Girls and boys follow very different hormonal paths at this life stage.

Figure 8.3 Timing of the Physical Changes of Puberty

The Timing of Puberty (1 of 3) Girls begin puberty about two years earlier than boys Cultural differences Kikuyu – boys show puberty before females Chinese – girls develop pubic hair after breast buds (counter to Western pattern) African American – girls develop breast buds and pubic hair earlier than white girls

The Timing of Puberty (2 of 3) Technology in food production and medical care influence puberty Age of menarche has decreased in Western countries Secular trend Average age of menarche is lowest in industrialized countries In rapidly developing countries a decline is seen in recent decades after development

The Timing of Puberty (3 of 3) Early maturation Girls – depressed mood, negative body image, eating disorders Boys – favorable body image, higher popularity, earlier delinquency Later maturation may be more negative for boys with fewer problems for girls

Figure 8.4 The Secular Trend in Age of Menarche Why did age of reaching menarche decline?

Cultural Responses: Puberty Rituals Puberty rituals mark a transition Girls Menstrual blood may be considered dangerous to crops, livestock, and people Boys May be required to show feats of courage, strength, or pain endurance Circumcision Discuss the view of male and female circumcision worldwide

Eating Disorders (1 of 3) Anorexia – eating disorder characterized by intentional self-starvation Inability to maintain body weight Fear of weight gain Lack of menstruation Distorted body image

Eating Disorders (2 of 3) Bulimia Fear of weight gain Engage in binge eating then purge Can damage teeth from repeated vomiting Tend to maintain normal weight and recognize abnormal eating patterns Eating disorders are more common in cultures that emphasize slimness

Eating Disorders (3 of 3) Treatment options: hospitalization, medication, or psychotherapy Effectiveness: one-third of individuals treated for anorexia remain ill one-half of individuals treated for bulimia relapse continuing problems as individuals dealing with these disorders age

Substance Use (1 of 2) Substance use rare before adolescence and common by the end of adolescence Rates of marijuana use by seniors higher than cigarettes Substance use higher in Native American and lowest in African American and Asian Americans Teenage substance use has gone down in comparison to previous generations

Substance Use (2 of 2) Reasons for substance use among adolescents are varied experimental social Medicinal Self medication addictive

Figure 8.5 Substance Use in Western Countries (1 of 2) Why are rates of alcohol and cigarette use low in the United States and Canada?

Figure 8.5 Substance Use in Western Countries (2 of 2)

Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Theory of Formal Operations Involves ability to think scientifically Hypothetical Deductive reasoning Pendulum problem is used to demonstrate ability Formal operations allows one to solve the pendulum problem-changing one variable while keeping one constant

Figure 8.6 Pendulum Problem How does performance on this task test formal operations

Critiques of Piaget’s Theory of Formal Operations Individual differences Not seen in every instance of teen life Adolescents with math and science exhibit it more Cultural differences Traditional Piagetian tasks show little success Success if task relevant to culture

Information Processing: Attention and Metamemory Adolescents improve on attention tasks Selective attention – focus on relevant information Divided attention – two things at once but learning is still detrimentally affected Memory also improves Use of memory strategies (mnemonic devices) Experience and knowledge is enhancing Development of metacognition

Social Cognition: Imaginary Audience and Personal Fable Adolescent egocentrism has two aspects Imaginary audience Leads to feeling of self-consciousness Personal fable Can lead to anguish and high-risk behavior Go in more detail with examples for each term

Culture and Cognition Lev Vygotsky Zone of proximal development – difference between skills or tasks a person can accomplish alone and those they can do with guidance Scaffolding – the degree of assistance provided in the zone of proximal development Learning always takes place via a social process Go in more detail with examples for each term

Secondary Education in the US Education in adolescence centers around secondary schools Transition from elementary to middle can add to anxiety Perception of teacher support declines High schools can prepare teens with basic skills High school completion rates vary between ethnic groups

Figure 8.7 U.S. High School Completion Rate by Ethnic Group

Secondary Education Worldwide (1 of 2) International variations in secondary schools (middle and high schools) Enrollment In developed countries is the norm Ethnic minorities from low-income families have substantially lower completion rates than the majority culture Go into detail in comparing comprehensive schools and non-comprehensive schools Explain in detail developing countries’ struggles

Secondary Education Worldwide (2 of 2) School types Comprehensive schools – one institution as source of secondary education, as in the U.S. Europe has three types – college preparatory, vocational school, and professional school Developing countries it is difficult to attend secondary schools Gender differences and rising enrollments but insufficient funding and lack of teachers Go into detail in comparing comprehensive schools and non-comprehensive schools Explain in detail developing countries’ struggles

Map 8.1 Secondary School Enrollment Worldwide Which countries have the highest enrollment rates for secondary education? Which are the lowest? What cultural and economic factors might explain these variations?

Figure 8.8 International Performance in Reading and Math, 8th Grade Go into detail explaining international performance differences. What explains why Japan scores highest?

Work (1 of 2) Developing countries Work in developed countries Work begins in early or middle childhood and continues Prostitution on rise especially in Asia Many ways it can occur Work in developed countries Not related to family support Could negatively impact development Increased hours could lower grades

Work (2 of 2) European countries have tradition of apprenticeship Common in central and northern Europe Entry at age 16 Continued part-time schooling Training that takes place in workplace Preparation for a career in a respected profession

Emotional and Social Development

Emotional and Self-Development: Storm and Stress Adolescence thought to be a time of storm and stress Experience Sampling Method (ESM) has shown that In the U.S. it is a time of emotional volatility Self-conscious, embarrassed, moody, lonely, and nervous Source of distress a combination of cognitive and environmental factors Transitions coupled with how events are interpreted contribute to volatility

Figure 8.9 Change in Emotional States During Adolescence Use figure to complete previous slide and how emotional states change. Limited cross cultural evidence Average emotional state becomes steadily more negative in the course of adolescence.

Self Understanding and Concept Adolescent self-conceptions become complex Composed of: Actual self – true self-conception Possible self – what you could become Ideal self – would like to be Feared self – possible to become but fear becoming it False self – what is shown to others Discrepancy between actual self and ideal self can lead to feelings of failure and depression Self-esteem tends to fluctuate during adolescence

Self-Esteem Self-esteem composed of many dimensions Susan Harter investigated eight domains of influence on adolescent self-image Domains of importance to most adolescents are: Physical appearance Social acceptance Tend to affect self-esteem the most especially in girls

Gender Intensification (1 of 2) Adolescence is an important time for gender socialization, especially for girls Gender intensification hypothesis Research has been shown to support hypothesis From sixth to eighth grade, boys’ and girls’ self-descriptions became more gender- stereotyped

Gender Intensification (2 of 2) Gender intensification higher in traditional cultures Boys Achieve manhood by providing, protecting, and procreating Girls Demonstrate womanhood but it is inevitable and cannot fail Gender roles may be changing over time through globalization

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development (1 of 2) Kohlberg proposed a universal theory of moral development His focus was on the structure of moral reasoning Studied the moral judgments of 72 middle- class boys

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development (2 of 2) Preconventional Stage 1 – Punishment and obedience Stage 2 – Individualism and purpose Conventional Stage 3 – Interpersonal concordance Stage 4 – Social systems Postconventional Stage 5 – Community rights Stage 6 – Universal ethics

Culture and Moral Development (1 of 2) Alternate view of moral reasoning focuses on the individual’s worldview Worldview provides basis for: Moral reasoning – explaining right or wrong Moral evaluations – outcome of moral reasoning Moral behaviors – actions that reinforce worldview

Culture and Moral Development (2 of 2) Jensen codes peoples’ responses according to three types of “ethics” Ethic of autonomy – individual is the primary moral authority Ethic of community – individuals are members of social groups with commitments and obligations Ethic of divinity – individuals are spiritual entities, subject to a divine authority

Figure 8.10 Worldviews Theory Use figure to highlight Jensen’s ethics based on world view How is this theory different from Kohlberg’s?

Religious Beliefs Adolescents in developed countries are less religious than those in developing countries Americans are more religious than other developed countries Religion has a low priority and tends to follow no specific traditional doctrine Differences in religiosity include: family characteristics ethnicity Religious involvement provides protective factors

Table 8.1 Religious Beliefs of U.S. Adolescents Believe in God or a universal spirit 84% Pray at least once a week 65% Religion important in daily life 51% Believe in the existence of angels 63% Attend religious services at least twice a month 52% Involved in a church youth group 38%

Family Relationships (1 of 2) Conflicts with parents increase May be due to sexual maturation, cognitive issues, and greater independence and autonomy Parents may be concerned about adolescents’ safety Parental monitoring may or may not be an issue as well Use figure to highlight patterns of conflicts across adolescence. Highlight mother and daughter

Family Relationships (2 of 2) Sibling relationships lead to conflict but less than in earlier childhood Traditional cultures Siblings have child care responsibilities Close to extended family members More contact in traditional cultures than Western countries (extended family) Minority communities have closeness with extended families that resembles traditional cultures

Figure 8.11 Parental Conflict in Adolescence Why does conflict peak in the mid-teens?

Peers and Friends (1 of 4) Friends provide companionship and intimacy In traditional cultures adolescents spend more time with family than peers Intimacy most distinctive feature of adolescent friendships

Peers and Friends (2 of 4) Girls talk more with their friends than boys Girls more likely to emphasize closeness and affection as part of friendship Boys more likely to emphasize shared activities as basis of friendship

Peers and Friends (3 of 4) Adolescent social groups include: Cliques – small group of friends Crowds – larger reputation-based and not necessarily friends Elites, athletes, academics, deviants, and others Crowds help adolescents define their own identities

Peers and Friends (4 of 4) Bullying peaks in early adolescence Bully occurs internationally with rates varying country to country Negative effects include helplessness, anxiety, and unhappiness Cyberbullying has highest rates in early adolescence

Romantic Relationships Romantic relationships increase over time Asian cultures later than other groups Romance is less formal than previous years Relationships and sexuality are viewed differently due to culture Permissive cultures tolerate sexuality Semirestrictive cultures have prohibitions Restrictive cultures have strong prohibitions Cross Cultural differences

Adolescent Pregnancy and Contraceptive Use Pregnancy and contraception use vary by type of country Permissive adolescent sex attitudes – low rates of conception Influenced by availability and attitudes about safe sex and contraception Restrictive adolescent sex attitudes – low rates of conception Influenced by discouraging attitudes United States’ high rate impacted by mixed messages

Figure 8.12 Teenage Pregnancy Rates in Developed Countries Why are rates so high in the United States?

Sexual Orientation Adolescence is when sexual orientation is fully aware Historically kept secret now more likely to “come out” Homophobia can make coming out traumatic Parental rejection a concern Acceptance by peers may be increasing

Figure 8.13 Media Practice Model Use Model to stress the motivations of adolescents to engage in the media In this model, identity is the main motivator of media use.

Media Use Electronic games Social media is also prevalent Become more popular among boys Favorite games involve violence Could be related to anxiety and depression Use may be related to feelings of power, fame, and dealing with stress Social media is also prevalent May be linked to higher rates of depression

Crime and Delinquency Crime rates peak about 18 then decline Age–crime relationship Increased peer importance coupled with independence from parents Two types of delinquency Life course – persistent delinquents Adolescence-limited delinquents Detail the types of delinquency in more depth

Figure 8.15 Multisystemic Approach to Delinquency Use figure to the approach and provide information Why is MST more effective than other types of interventions for delinquency?

Depression Types of depression Depressed mood Major depressive disorder Causes of depressed mood include conflicts, disappointments, and poor performance in school Girls are at higher risk than boys Two types of treatment Antidepressant medications Psychotherapy Mention common cause of depressed mood Girls at higher risk

Resilience in Adolescence Resilience – good outcomes in spite of threats to adaptation and development Protective factors are: High intelligence Effective parenting Adult mentor Religiosity