Continuity and Change in the 18th Century

Continuity and Change: What changes and what stays the same? Listen to the description of Peasant life in Europe by the historian John Merriman. In much of Europe, this STAYS THE SAME throughout the 18th century. However, changes in agriculture, that begin in England and later spread will form an agricultural revolution which will start chipping away at the social order. LATER, industry will be born, and with it – a total reordering of society. In England at least....(Stay tuned next unit for France).

The Social Order of the 18th Century: The Peasants Much stays the same in Europe: you are still most likely to have your social status determined by your family and ancestry. However, forces of change were at work. Enlightenment thinkers argued that the concept of an unchanging social order based on privilege was hostile to the progress of society. But it is really not until the revolution we will see at the end of the 18th century that the social order starts to crumble. Peasants: Largest social group, Free peasants in Western Europe and serfs in Eastern Europe. Most peasants had to pay tithes, or a form of taxes paid in crops. Serfs were bound to the lords estate and had to perform labor on the lords land. For peasants, the local village remained at the center of social life. Diet mostly of bread. Peasant life was hard, and most peasants were old before their time. Arthur Young, an English traveler, wrote about an old woman he met while touring the countryside in France....she turned out to be 28 years old!

The Nobility As seen on TV! 2-3% of the population but dominated society and were large landowners Many nobles were exempt from taxation. Played important roles in military and government affairs. They did not all use their land in the same way: example – in Eastern Europe the land was worked by serfs, while in England land was leased to small farmers. There could be an enormous gap between rich and poor nobles. Nobles spent a lot of time and energy maintaining their aristocratic estates. The English country house played an important role in social life.

The Agricultural Revolution...the social order starts to break down PEASANT LIFE LARGELY STAYS THE SAME BUT BIG CHANGES ARE HAPPENING IN ENGLAND WHY? The 18th century had better weather than the cold, damp 17th century. The landowning class of nobles in Parliament had won rights during the English civil war and now used their power and influence to change agricultural practices. New agricultural methods began in England: Crop rotation: leaving part of the land fallow which helped regenerate the soil. Provides food for animals and humans Animal husbandry New inventions like the seed drill (mechanical drill to plant seeds” These practices succeeded in getting the land to yield about 2.5 times more. Europe even exported food across the globe. Enclosure: “Common Lands” that belonged to a town/communally owned (like a large subsistence community garden” Parliament, made up of landowners, pressured the king to “enclose these common lands, transforming communally owned land to private land owned by landowners. Could be more intensely and profitably farmed. This forced many subsistence famers from the land, and many had to become agricultural laborers. What stayed the same: on the continent, much of agricultural techniques stayed the same. Prussian, Spanish and French nobles rarely were involved in farming techniques and were content to live off their peasants without much change. However, England style changes did take place in the Dutch Republic, and other parts of the northern German states. Some countries actively were against agricultural innovation (in Russia, peasants refused to plant potatoes – just in from the new world, calling them “Apples of the Devil” Eventually the agricultural revolution would spread throughout Europe.

What about people who lost their jobs in the fields What about people who lost their jobs in the fields? The Cottage Industry and the very beginnings of urbanization Agricultural innovations reduced the need for agricultural workers, and other occupations were expanding. The cottage industry is where many poor agricultural workers would go. Textiles were one of the most important products, especially in England in the 18th century. Production of textiles was beginning to shift to the countryside to be an opportunity for people who lost their jobs in agriculture. This “cottage industry” is also called the “putting out system.” A merchant-capitalist brought raw materials, mostly wool and flax, and “put them out” to rural workers, who spun the raw material into yarn and then wove it into cloth. They would pay the women weaving and then sell the textiles at a profit. On the consumer end, more people were joining the middle class as merchants and crafts people and they became consumers. Textiles became part of the consumer revolution.

Changes in labor and economic patterns Industrious Revolution Challenging of Traditional Guilds Adam Smith and economic liberalism In the cities – more people moved to the cities and there was an increase in wage work. The “industrious revolution” is used to describe the increase in work time of all people, including women and children, whose work now was focused away from the household and on wage work. Less of a survival based economy (where you grow your own food etc) Women’s work outside the home at a much higher rate and this paved the way for industrialization. Guilds – provided protection and training to skilled artisans (the protection part is kind of like unions today) Guilds were threatened as the rise of unskilled labor took root. Adam Smith’s ideas challenged guilds and mercantilism – calling for a free market. Pursuit of self interest should be sufficient in providing better living conditions.

The Population Explosion Up until the 18th century population growth was slow. (plague, war, famine) Growth in all areas of Europe Fewer deaths – no plague, less famine Surprisingly, better medicine did not have that much to do with it (it wasn’t that much better). Increases in food and also easier trade and sharing of food on well kept roads Enlightenment: Agricultural Rev and technological advances Positives: overall better standard of living and less threats Negatives: Larger number of people with no economic opportunities – forced to find jobs (will result in increased urbanization and increased social problems)

Worldwide Trade: The Atlantic Economy and the Consumer Revolution As we head to the 18th century, constitutional monarchies like England adopt their own brand of mercantilism: Favorable balance of trade More exports than imports State provides subsidies for manufacturers Colonies are valuable source of income. England passes the Navigation Acts to make more money off of their colonies. The importance of slavery to the Atlantic System Overseas trade experiences a boom in the 18th century The Atlantic System, as it comes to be known by, is very much like the Columbian Exchange. Governments rely on slavery and colonial goods. The rise of Atlantic trade leads to greater prosperity for urban centers. There is also a demand for consumer goods, and “exotic” goods like coffee and porcelain from overseas. This is called the consumer revolution.

Consumer Revolution and a new concept of public and private spaces Consumer Society: people identified themselves through their “consuming practices” – what they bought. Wide varieties of consumer goods became available. Increased demand also was a response to increased supply. People decorated their private spaces and there was an increased value on the home.

Where are we with religion? John Wesley – founder of methodism In both Catholic and Protestant countries, religious life still dominated by local church. Organized religious festivals. Registered births and deaths. Provided charity – looked after orphans etc. Protestants: Religions had become “normalized” and they were not seen anymore as radical. While this was good for the stability of Protestant religions, many felt that things had become too conformist, old. The “Protestant Revival” begins in Germany in the form of “Pietism” – it called for warm, emotional religion that everyone could experience. More enthusiasm. Methodism: In England, John Wesley – called Methodists because they were so methodical about their devotion. Had a religious experience and travelled around taking good news to people. What about Catholics? Baroque art was a lavish religious expression. Catholicism seemed to have an integral role in community life. Some parish priests sought to purify pagan beliefs out of Catholicism. While the Enlightenment is questioning religion, common people are becoming MORE religious.

Practice SAQ: Identify TWO large scale trends that were NEW in the 18th century Identify ONE impact of one of those trends.