Lesson III Normative Ethics Ethical theories

Classes of ethical theories Consequentialist ethics focus on the consequences of our actions, which actions are good is relative to the ends and results of those actions. Deontological ethics focus on the moral significance of each action or type of action, some actions are good for themselves and ought to be considered our duty.

Ethical Theories Consequentialist: Deontological: Virtue ethics (eudemonism) - Aristotle Hedonism - Epicurus Emotivism – David Hume Utilitarianism – Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill Deontological: Natural Rights theories – John Locke Ethics of duty – Immanuel Kant Contractarianism – Jürgen Habermas & John Rawls

Virtue Ethics I - Aristotle Happiness The highest good can only be defined by being final, that is for being something desired for its own sake and not as a medium for a further end. Humans universally seek happiness, hence happiness is the highest good since it is the only ultimate goal. But people have very different opinions concerning what happiness is (mainly pleasure, wealth and honor), how are we to understand it? Aristotle understands happiness as “eudaimonia” (good-spirit), that is “flourishing” or “self-realization”. True happiness then: Is enduring (the whole life, not instants, is to be considered happy) Is and end in itself (when reached, nothing else is pursued) Is self-sufficient (the possibility of achieving it relies on me). Happiness must then rely on human nature, and consist on the excellent or full realization of human’s proper function, that is reason.

Virtue Ethics II - Aristotle “Areté” (“excellence”, “virtue”) is the way of achieving happiness, since it is a disposition of our character, which may then last long and depends on us. The happy violinist would be the virtuous one, the one who plays violin with excellence. The happy human would be the virtuous one, the one who uses reason with excellence. Uses it for what? For making the best choices. Practical knowledge, wisdom applied to voluntary actions leads to happiness. Prudence Prudence is the main virtue, it is the virtue of virtues since it consists on the ability, the disposition to recognize the best action, that is, the mean between two extremes, two vices. The prudent man, the wise, will achieve happiness because his character leads him to perform virtuous actions, to make apt choices, he has the habit of acting on the best reason.

Hedonism - Epicurus Epicurus believed that pleasure is the greatest good (hedonism). But the way to attain pleasure is to live modestly and to gain knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of one's desires (distinguishing natural and necessary pleasures from those non natural nor necessary). Happiness in its highest form is constituted by a state of tranquility (ataraxia) and freedom from fear, as well as absence of bodily pain (aponia). The tetrapharmakos (“fourth-part-cure”) is the recipe leading to happiness: Don’t fear God Don’t worry about death What is good is easy to get What is terrible is easy to endure

Utilitarianism – John Stuart Mill According to utilitarianism the moral worth of an action is determined only by its resulting outcome. Right actions lead to maximize overall happiness: “it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong”. Nonetheless some kinds of pleasure (those of the intellect) are more valuable than others (those of the body), because they last longer and are safer: “It is better to be a Socrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied. And if the pig is of a different opinion, it is because it only knows its own side of the question.”

Immanuel Kant - Ethics of duty I Good will: A good will is the only intrinsically good thing, an action is only good if performed out of duty rather than out of practical need or desire. The good will is a will that acts from duty as a “good-in-itself.” The class of actions in accordance with duty (heteronomy) must be distinguished from the class of actions performed from duty (autonomy).

Immanuel Kant - Ethics of duty II Duty is the necessity of acting out of respect for universal law. Duty is then expressed with a categorical imperative (these imperatives command unconditionally, “You ought to do X” ) not with an hypothetical imperative (these command conditionally on your having a relevant desire, “If you want X, you ought to do Y”).

Immanuel Kant - Ethics of duty III Categorical imperative An unconditional demand comes out of autonomy, reason and universality. How can be this demand be expressed? This is one possible formula of the categorical imperative: “Act only in such a way as you can will that your action should become a universal law." “Act always in such a way that you treat Humanity no only as a mean but as an end in itself.”