Sex Differences and Gender-Role Development

DEFINING SEX AND GENDER Sex – person’s biological identity Chromosomes; physical manifestations of identity; hormonal influences Gender – person’s social and cultural identity as male or female Gender typing – process of acquiring a gender identity and the motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate for their biological sex

CATEGORIZING MALES AND FEMALES: GENDER ROLE STANDARDS Gender role standard – value, motive, or behavior considered more appropriate for members of one sex than the other Expressive role – female – kind, nurturing, cooperative, sensitive to others’ needs Instrumental role – male – dominant, assertive, independent, and competitive

Table 12.1 Sex Differences in the Socialization of Five Attributes in 110 Societies. Note: The percentages for each attribute do not add to 100 because some of the societies did not place differential pressures on boys and girls with respect to that attribute. For example, 18 percent of the societies for which pertinent data were available did not differentiate between the sexes in the socialization of nurturance. Source: Adapted from “A Cross-Cultural Survey of Some Sex Differences in Socialization,” by H. Barry III, M. K. Bacon, & I. L. Child, 1957, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 55, 327-332..

CATEGORIZING MALES AND FEMALES: GENDER ROLE STANDARDS Facts and Fictions About Sex Differences Actual Psychological Differences Between the Sexes (all small) Verbal Ability – girls are generally superior Visual/Spatial Abilities – boys are superior Evident by age 4, persists across life span Mathematical Abilities In adolescence, boys better at arithmetic reasoning Girls better at computational skills

Figure 12.1 A spatial task for which sex differences in performance have been found. From “Emergence and Characteristics of Sex Differences in Spatial Ability: A Meta-Analysis,” by M. C. Linn & A. C. Petersen, 1985, Child Development, 56, 1479-1498. Copyright © 1985 by the Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

CATEGORIZING MALES AND FEMALES: GENDER ROLE STANDARDS Actual Psychological Differences Between the Sexes (continued) Aggression Beginning at age 2, boys are more physically and verbally aggressive Girls more likely to display covert aggression Activity level – boys are more physically active (even before birth)

CATEGORIZING MALES AND FEMALES: GENDER ROLE STANDARDS Actual Psychological Differences Between the Sexes (continued) Fear, timidity, and risk-taking Girls are more fearful, timid, and take fewer risks Developmental vulnerability Boys are more vulnerable to prenatal and perinatal hazards and disease

CATEGORIZING MALES AND FEMALES: GENDER ROLE STANDARDS Actual Psychological Differences Between the Sexes (continued) Emotional expressivity / sensitivity Beginning in toddlerhood Boys express more anger Girls express most other emotions more frequently Compliance Girls are more compliant Self-esteem Boys are slightly higher beginning in adolescence

CATEGORIZING MALES AND FEMALES: GENDER ROLE STANDARDS Actual Psychological Differences Between the Sexes (continued) Conclusions Differences reflect group averages Differences are small Differences are most apparent at the extremes Males and females are much more psychologically similar than they are different

Figure 12.2 These two distributions of scores-one for males, one for females-give some idea of the size of the gap between the sexes in abilities for which sex differences are consistently found. Despite a small difference in average performance, the scores of males and females overlap considerably. Adapted from “Gender Differences in Mathematics Performance: A Meta-Analysis,” by J. S. Hyde, E. Fennema, & S. J. Lamon, 1990, Psychological Bulletin, 107, p. 139-155. Copyright © 1990 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted by permission.

CATEGORIZING MALES AND FEMALES: GENDER ROLE STANDARDS Most gender-role stereotypes are “cultural myths” No basis in fact Due to well-ingrained cognitive schemas Interpret and distort behavior

CATEGORIZING MALES AND FEMALES: GENDER ROLE STANDARDS Do Cultural Myths Contribute to Sex Differences in Ability/Vocational Opportunity? Self-fulfilling prophecy actually promotes sex differences in cognitive performance Home Influences Parents expect sons to outperform daughters in math Son’s successes are due to ability, daughter’s due to hard work

CATEGORIZING MALES AND FEMALES: GENDER ROLE STANDARDS Home Influences, continued Children internalize parent’s views, boys become self-confident Girls lose interest in math, due to perceived lack of ability Scholastic Influences Teachers have similar views affecting children in a similar manner

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Development of the Gender Concept (gender identity) By age 2 ½ to 3, accurately label oneself as a boy or girl 5 to 7 years – gender is unchanging

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Development of Gender-Role Stereotypes Present at 2 to 3 years, once children can label pictures of children as boys or girls 3 to 7 – view gender-role standards as rules 8 to 9 – more flexible, distinction between moral rules and gender-role standards

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Cultural Influences Collectivist societies tend to encourage conforming to gender-role standards Adolescent Thinking About Gender Stereotypes Less flexible again; increased pressure to conform Gender intensification Later in high school, may be more flexible again

Figure 12.3 Children’s rankings of the wrongness of gender-role transgressions (such as a boy’s wearing nail polish) and violations of moral rules (such as pushing another child from a swing). Notice that children of all ages deplore immoral acts but that only kindergartners and adolescents view gender-role violations as wrong. Elementary school children come to think about gender-role standards in a more flexible way than they did earlier in life, but adolescents become concerned about the psychological implications of deviating from one’s “proper” gender identity. Adapted from “Children’s Concepts of Cross-Gender Activities,” by T. Stoddard & E. Turiel, 1985, Child Development, 59, 793-814. Copyright © 1985 by the Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. Adapted by permission..

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Development of Gender-Typed Behavior 14 to 22 months Children prefer gender appropriate toys Gender Segregation 2 years, girls prefer playing with girls 3 years, boys prefer playing with boys Due to differences in play styles Cognitive and social-cognitive development

Figure 12.4 Two- to three-year-old toddlers already prefer playmates of their own sex. Boys are much more social with boys than with girls, whereas girls are more outgoing with girls than with boys. Adapted from “Social Behavior at 33 Months in Same-Sex and Mixed-Sex Dyads,” by C. N. Jacklin & E. E. Maccoby, 1978, Child Development, 49, 557-569. Copyright © 1978 by the Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. Adapted by permission.

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Sex Differences in Gender-Typed Behavior Males are assigned greater status Males feel stronger pressure to adhere to gender appropriate codes Most girls do comply with prescriptions for the feminine role by adolescence Be attractive to opposite sex Concern of others’ evaluations

Table 12.2 Percentages of Boys and Girls Who Requested Popular “Masculine” and “Feminine” Items from Santa Claus. Source: Adapted from “Children, Gender, and Social Structure: Ana Analysis of the Contents of Letters to Santa Claus,” by J. G. Richardson & C. H. Simpson, 1982, Child Development, 53, 429-436. Copyright © 1982 by The Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. Adapted with permission.

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Subcultural Variations in Gender-Typing Middle class adolescents hold more flexible gender-role attitudes then low SES peers African-American children hold less stereotyped views of women than European-American children Both due to differences in education and family life

Table 12.3 An Overview of Gender Typing

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Evolutionary Theory Males and females face different evolutionary pressures Natural selection created fundamental differences in male and female roles Females need to be nurturing Males need spatial skills for hunting

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Criticisms of the Evolutionary Approach Applies primarily to differences that apply cross-culturally Ignores differences limited to cultures or historical periods Social roles hypothesis Cultures assign roles based on gender Socialization practices

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Money & Ehrhardt’s Biosocial Theory of Gender Differentiation and Development Inherit X or Y chromosome from father If Y, testes secrete testosterone and MIS Resulting in male genitals At birth, social factors become important Child is labeled by society At puberty, sex characteristics and urges combine with label.

Figure 13.5 Critical events in Money and Ehrhardt’s biosocial theory of sex typing. From Man and Woman, Boy and Girl, by J. Money & A. Ehrhardt, 1972. Copyright © 1972 by Johns Hopkins University Press. Reprinted by permission.

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Evidence for Biological Influences on Gender-Role Development Genetic influences 50% of the differences in masculine self-concept 0–20% of the differences in feminine self-concept Strong masculine self-concept and experience with spatial toys increases abilities

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Hormonal influences If females are exposed to excess androgen prenatally, result is masculinized external genitalia Alters play behavior Increases interest in same-sex relationships Improves performance on spatial ability tests Influences career and family choices

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Evidence for Social-Labeling Influences Surgery and gender reassignment are generally successful for androgenized females Prior to 18 months of age However, Bruce / Brenda case study After age 3, very difficult Masculine gender typing Labeling of self as a boy Appears to be a sensitive period, but both biology and socialization matter

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Cultural influences Mead’s study of tribal societies Arapesh – both males and females were taught to be expressive Mundugumor – both genders were taught to be “masculine” Tchambuli – from Western standards, males more feminine, females more masculine

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT A psychobiosocial viewpoint Prenatal hormone exposure influences brain development Creates different sensitivities for males and females Coupled with others’ beliefs, provides more exposure to gender consistent materials

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Males become gender typed as they identify with their father to resolve the Oedipus complex Fathers encourage feminine behavior in females (modeled after mother) Lack of research support

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Social Learning Theory Direct Tuition of Gender Roles Children are rewarded for gender-appropriate behaviors, punished for opposite sex appropriate behavior Parents begin the process Siblings and peers reinforce it

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Observational learning – children adopt the attitudes and behaviors of same-sex models Also important is the label attached to the attitude or behavior Same-sex models become more important at ages 5 to 7, when gender is unchanging aspect of the self

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Children first establish a stable gender identity Basic gender identity: By age 3, label themselves boy or girl Gender stability: Occurs next Gender consistency: By 5-7, gender is consistent across situations

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT After achieving gender consistency Children actively seek out same-sex models to determine how to act

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Gender-typing begins well before children acquire a mature gender identity Gender reassignment is very difficult after age 3

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Gender Schema Theory (Martin & Halverson) Children acquire a basic gender identity Motivates child to learn about the sexes and create gender schemas Begin as simple in-group/out-group schemas Also create an own-sex schema Schemas serve as scripts for processing social information

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT An Integrative Theory Biological theories account for major biological developments. Social-theories account for differential reinforcement processes. Cognitive development explains the growth of categorization skills. Gender schemas are also important as are models as children age.

Table 12.4 An Overview of the Gender-Typing Process from the Perspective of an Integrative Theorist.

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Applications: On Changing Gender Role Attitudes and Behavior Parents must teach that biological sex is unimportant other than for reproduction Delay exposure to gender stereotypes Interventions work best with younger children Programs work best if the adult in charge is male