Opposition to the Liberal Order Dissent from Late Victorian Society

Attacks on Capitalist Civilization By the late 19th century, liberal society was largely successful in its transformation of Europe. Even so, it was attacked on both the left and the right by those who sought to reform it or bring about its demise. These movements would bring into question the cult of progress which had dominated much of the second half of the 19th century.

Working Class Movements The First International The International Working Men’s Association was organized in 1864. The meeting of workers from around the world was dominated by Karl Marx from the start. He would eventually expel French and English socialists who disagreed with Marxism. The First International would last until 1872.

The Socialist Parties Beginning in the 1870s, socialist political parties began gaining more power across Europe. With the exception of Britain, these parties generally adhered to Marxism. Conflicts between those who hoped to win parliamentary victories and those who wanted revolution caused disunity.

Trade Unionism Membership in trade unions soared in the late 19th century. Factory workers who organized large scale strikes flexed more power than they ever had before. The goals of unions were often limited to their situation, but with the influence of Marxism and anarchism, they often took on broader social protests.

Anarchism Anarchism gained a greater following among the poor and oppressed. Anarchists opposed all imposed authority and middle class values, some called for abolition of private property, individualism, and pacifism. Anarchists (and other radicals) were responsible for a series of terrorists acts and assassinations in the years leading up to World War I.

Mikhail Bakunin He was the most famous early anarchist. Bakunin became involved in the 1848 revolutions and was exiled to Siberia. When he escaped, he joined the First International. Disagreements with Marx led to his expulsion in 1872. He strongly believed in nationalism.

The Christian Critique Catholicism The Catholic Church was at odds with liberalism In Pope Pius IX’s Quanta Cura (1864), the Church attacked human reason, the authority of the state, and the rights of the Church. In the First Vatican Council (1869-70), papal infallibility was reaffirmed. Pope Leo XIII and Pius X followed with similar criticisms of liberalism and communism Pope Pius IX

The Christian Critique Social Action Churches and related organizations began expanding and taking on new roles in helping the poor and oppressed of Europe. Organizations and churches like the Salvation Army, founded by Methodist minister William Booth in England, took on greater roles in caring for the poor.

Growing Pessimism There was growing pessimism even among those who desired radical change. George Sorel questioned Marxism as to optimistic, instead focusing on anarcho-communism that was chosen by individual will. Henri-Louis Bergson echo these sentiments, focusing on intuition over intellect as the driving force for change.

Growing Pessimism Revival of the Right During the late 19th century and early 20th century, there was also a revival in conservative thought. Much of this was driven in reaction to the liberal domination of the time and the growing power of the left among the workers. This revival pulled on nationalism and tradition to keep power in the hands of the traditional ruling elite.

Anti-Semitism Throughout much of Europe, a wave of anti-Semitic feeling was slowly rising. This was particularly visible in Russia, with the enactment of the May Laws in 1882 (these severely restricted rights for Jews). Throughout most of Europe, society was tolerant (France granted emancipation in 1790), but anti-Semitic undercurrents remained and were exposed through incidents such as they Dreyfus Affair in France.

Friedrich Nietzsche German philosopher who criticized Christianity’s beliefs in humility, pity, and altruism. He exalted the will, stating the human will gives life meaning. He stressed the idea of the superman, or heroic leader, who broke the rules and led a higher level of existence.