Whip Around Think about a time when you misunderstood someone’s language. Be prepared to share aloud this experience. What caused the misunderstanding? How could you have improved your communication?

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 5 LANGUAGE

Our Agenda The Nature of Language Appreciating the Power of Words Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Our Agenda The Nature of Language Appreciating the Power of Words The Use and Abuse of Language Creating a Positive Communication Climate

The Nature of Language Language is symbolic English: barn Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Nature of Language Language is symbolic English: barn Dutch: schuur Portuguese: celeiro Greek: σιταποθήκη

Language Is Symbolic The Natural World Language Is Symbolic Smoke means something is burning A fever means someone is ill Language Is Symbolic Connection between words and the ideas or things they represent is arbitrary

The Nature of Language Language is arbitrary (mostly) Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Nature of Language Language is arbitrary (mostly) Most words have only an arbitrary connection to their meanings Words literally mean whatever we—as users of a language—choose for them to mean An exception is onomatopoeia, a word formed by imitating the sound associated with its meaning

The Nature of Language Language is governed by rules Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Nature of Language Language is governed by rules Phonological rules Syntactic rules Semantic rules Pragmatic rules © Hannu Liivaar/Alamy, RF

The Nature of Language Language has layers of meaning Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Nature of Language Language has layers of meaning Denotative meaning: The literal or dictionary definition of a word Connotative meaning: a word’s implications © Berc/Getty Images, RF

The Nature of Language The Semantic Triangle [referent] [symbol] Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Nature of Language The Semantic Triangle [referent] © Phillip Spears/Photodisc/PunchStock, RF, © BananaStock,PunchStock, RF [symbol] [reference]

The Nature of Language Language has layers of meaning Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Nature of Language Language has layers of meaning Loaded language comprises words with strongly positive or negative connotative meanings Cancer Peace Family Freedom The denotative meanings of loaded language may be emotionally neutral

The Nature of Language Language varies in clarity Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Nature of Language Language varies in clarity Some language is ambiguous Language varies in abstraction © Nicolas McComber/Getty Images, RF

The Ladder of Abstraction Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Nature of Language The Ladder of Abstraction © Gerville/iStock

Understandings and Misunderstandings Abstraction Is vague in nature Behavioral language is specific to things people do or say Abstraction Ladder Highly abstract language can lead to blanket judgments Figure 5.1

Understanding and Misunderstanding Understanding Words Semantic rules=how we assign meanings to symbols “Bikes” are for riding and “books” are for reading Equivocation Statements that have more than one commonly accepted definition E.g. trees can break wind or 20-year friendships end at the altar

Understanding and Misunderstanding Relative Language Words that gain their meaning by comparison Static Evaluation Statements that contain or imply the word is lead to mistaken assumptions about people E.g. Maggie is a nervous woman.

Understandings and Misunderstandings Syntactic Rules Govern the grammar of language Pragmatic Rules Govern the way speech works in everyday interaction Communication as a cooperative game; all players in a game needed just like determining the rules of speech Coordination=the way conversation works when everyone plays by the same rules

Understandings and Misunderstandings Pragmatic Rules Some rules shared by most people in a culture People in their own individual relationships create their own sets of rules

The Nature of Language Language is bound by context and culture Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Nature of Language Language is bound by context and culture The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Linguistic determinism Linguistic relativity The merit of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has been widely questioned by researchers

Culture and Language Verbal Communication Styles Language and Worldview Linguistic relativism The worldview of a culture is shaped and reflected by the language its members speak. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis=a hypothesis, first advanced by Edward Sapir in 1929 and subsequently developed by Benjamin Whorf, that the structure of a language determines a native speaker's perception and categorization of experience.

Appreciating the Power of Words Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Appreciating the Power of Words Names define and differentiate us We make assumptions about people on the basis of their names William vs. Billy Susan vs. Suzie Naming practices vary by sex, ethnicity, religion, and age

The Impact of Language Naming and Identity Names are more than just a simple means of identification They shape the way others think of us They shape the way we view ourselves They shape the way we act

The Impact of Language Affiliation Speech can build and demonstrate solidarity with others Convergence The process of adapting one’s speech style to match others https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZDQYVU8o9M Divergence Speaking in a way that emphasizes one’s differences from others

The Impact of Language Powerless Language Hedges Hesitations Kinda, think, guess Hesitations Uh, well, er Intensifiers Really, very Polite forms Sir, madam Tag questions Isn’t it? Don’t you think..? Disclaimers I probably shouldn’t say this but Rising inflections=making a statement a question This is Dr. Brown? The test is tomorrow?

The Impact of Language Powerless Language Powerful speech is culturally based Language that is too powerful may intimidate In some situations, polite forms of speech can enhance effectiveness

The Impact of Language Three linguistic habits to avoid Disruptive language Three linguistic habits to avoid Fact-Opinion Confusion E.g. You forgot out anniversary; you don’t care about our marriage Fact-Inference Confusion E.g. Why are you mad? I’m not mad. Well, you look mad. Stop analyzing me. I'm not I just want to know why you are mad. Emotive Language Try to describe something but your emotion is displayed E.g. I think that is thrifty (you approve). It looks cheap (you disapprove)

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Whip Around

Appreciating the Power of Words Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Appreciating the Power of Words We use words to persuade Appeals to ethos rely on a speaker’s respectability, trustworthiness, and moral character Appeals to pathos rely on listeners’ emotions Appeals to logos rely on listeners’ ability to reason

Appreciating the Power of Words Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Appreciating the Power of Words Credibility empowers us Credibility is the extent to which others perceive us to be competent and trustworthy Several forms of language can enhance or diminish credibility Clichés Dialects Equivocation Weasel words Allness statements

Appreciating the Power of Words Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Appreciating the Power of Words Language expresses affection and intimacy Affectionate language can establish and maintain our close relationships Giving and receiving affection are good for our health © Paul Burns/Fancy Photography/Veer, RF

Appreciating the Power of Words Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Appreciating the Power of Words Words provide comfort and healing We use language to comfort those in need We also use language to comfort ourselves © AP Images/Victor R. Caivano

The Use and Abuse of Language Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Use and Abuse of Language Humor violates expectations Humor can enhance communication Putting others at ease Defusing stress and reinforcing intimacy Humor can be harmful Demeaning social or cultural groups Offending or harassing others

The Use and Abuse of Language Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Use and Abuse of Language Euphemisms are vague, mild expressions symbolizing something more harsh or blunt Operational exhaustion  battle fatigue  shell shock  posttraumatic stress disorder Can provide a way to talk about sensitive topics Can also desensitize people to important issues

The Use and Abuse of Language Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Use and Abuse of Language Slang comprises informal words often understood only by others in a particular group Jargon is the slang associated with a particular occupation or profession Can differentiate in-group and out-group members Can also alienate outsiders

The Use and Abuse of Language Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Use and Abuse of Language Libel and slander are defamatory statements made about others Libel is a defamatory statement made in print or some other fixed medium Slander is a defamatory statement made aloud, within earshot of others

The Use and Abuse of Language Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Use and Abuse of Language Profanity is rude or obscene language Profanity is context-specific Can serve to put people at ease Can also serve to insult or degrade others

The Use and Abuse of Language Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Use and Abuse of Language Hate speech is a form of profanity meant to degrade or intimidate people based on personal characteristics, such as their: Sex Ethnicity Religion Sexual orientation Disability status Political or moral views

Creating a Positive Communication Climate Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Creating a Positive Communication Climate Use confirming messages Recognition Acknowledgement Endorsement

Creating a Positive Communication Climate Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Creating a Positive Communication Climate Avoid the use of disconfirming messages Impervious response Verbal abuse Generalized complaining Irrelevant response Impersonal response

Creating a Positive Communication Climate Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Creating a Positive Communication Climate Avoid making others defensive Evaluation versus description Control versus problem orientation Strategy versus spontaneity Neutrality versus empathy Superiority versus equality Certainty versus provisionalism

Creating a Positive Communication Climate Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Creating a Positive Communication Climate Provide effective feedback Non-evaluative feedback Probing Paraphrasing Evaluative feedback Providing praise Offering support Criticizing constructively

Creating a Positive Communication Climate Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Creating a Positive Communication Climate Own your thoughts and feelings I-statements claim ownership of what a communicator is thinking or feeling “I am mad right now” You-statements shift that responsibility to the other person “You are making me mad” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nn3I6-DBLJM (The Breakup)

Creating a Positive Communication Climate Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Creating a Positive Communication Climate Separate opinions from factual claims Factual claims can be verified with evidence and shown to be true or false “Candidate C has more experience in government” Opinions express personal judgments that we can agree or disagree with, but that are not true or false in an absolute sense “Candidate L is a better choice for our future”

Creating a Positive Communication Climate Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Creating a Positive Communication Climate Create positive climates in electronically mediated communication Don’t expect feedback to be immediate Be careful not to use mediated communication as a shield Get permission before sharing other people’s photos Pay attention to auto-correct Reflect on messages instead of reacting

Gender and Language Content Female friends spent more time discussing: Relationship problems, family, health Male friends spent more time discussing: Current events, music, sports, business These differences can lead to frustration when men and women try to converse with one another

Gender and Language Reasons for Communicating Men and women use language to build and maintain social relationships How men and women accomplish these goals is different Men more likely to make conversation fun Women’s discussions tend to involve feelings, relationships, and personal problems

Gender and Language Conversational Style The myth that women are more talkative than men does not hold up under scientific scrutiny Women ask more questions in same-sex conversations Men’s speech is more characteristically direct, succinct, task-oriented Women’s speech is more typically indirect, elaborate, focused on relationships

Gender and Language Conversational Style Women typically use statements showing support for the other person The importance of nurturing a relationship explains why female speech is often tentative Accommodating style isn’t always a disadvantage

Gender and Language Nongender Variables Ways women and men communicate much more similar than different Male and female supervisors behave the same way and are equally effective Other factors influence language use Social philosophy Gender role https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9aVUoy9r0CM (the office)

Culture and Language Verbal Communication Styles Low-context cultures Generally value language to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as directly as possible. High-context cultures Generally value using language to maintain social harmony. Learn to discover meaning from the context in which a message is delivered: nonverbal behaviors, history of the relationship, etc.

Culture and Language Verbal Communication Styles Language styles can vary across culture Elaborate – Succinct Americans use succinct language Arabic speakers are elaborate in language Formality – Informality Informal cultures include the US, Canada, and Australia Formal cultures include parts of Asia and Africa

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Chapter 5 Quiz